INDIA 


BY 


FANNIE  ROPER   FEUDGE 


«  The  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold 


REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 
WITH  ONE    HUNDRED    ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  WERNER  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK          AKRON,  OHIO  CHICAGO 

1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1895, 

BY 
THE  WERNER   COMPANY 

History  of  India 


Stack 
/Vnnex 


PREFACE 


The  country  treated  in  the  volume  now  in  the  reader's  hand 
claims  attention  from  all  who  speak  the  English  tongue,  not 
only  by  reason  of  its  great  antiquity  and  the  Oriental  magnif- 
icence and  grandeur  that  adonis  its  history,  but  because  it  is 
the  home  of  those  who  used  the  language  from  which  their 
own  is  a  descendant.  The  history  of  England  had  long  been 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  India  before  the  speech  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  was  suspected  of  having  any  affiliation  with 
that  of  the  mysterious  land  of  the  Vedas,  the  home  of 
Guadama. 

Now  we  recognize  the  truth  that,  as  has  been  well  said,  Cen- 
tral Asia  was  the  cradle  of  the  "  noble  and  ever-progressive 
Aryan  race,  the  progenitor  of  Persian  and  Pelasgian,  and  Celt 
and  Teuton,  the  discoverer  of  well-nigh  everything  which  is 
great  and  beneficent  in  the  arts  of  war  and  peace,  the  race  from 
whose  bosom  came  Charlemagne  and  Alfred,  Dante  and  Shak- 
speare,  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael,  Newton  and  Descartes  — 
the  parent  in  the  modern  world  of  the  metaphysical  subtlety  of 
Germany,  and  the  vivid  intelligence  of  France,  and  the  imperi- 
al energy  of  England ;  the  parent  in  the  ancient  world  of  the 
lofty  spiritualism  of  India  'of  the  glory  that  was  Greece  and 
the  grandeur  that  was  Rome.' " 

The  more  intimate  our  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  this 
remarkable  land,  the  more  our  astonishment  at  the  marvellous 
past,  as  forcibly  exhibited  in  an  architecture  imposing  in  its 


PREFACE. 

ruins  from  which  the  fretting  tooth  of  time  has  not  even  yet 
taken  the  delicate  touches  which  in  other  days  gave  them  a 
ravishing  heauty.  The  literature  and  language  of  India  have 
been  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Western  world  within 
our  own  century,  and  we  know  comparatively  little  of  their 
scope  and  relations,  but  we  are  sufficiently  well  informed  to  be 
filled  with  amazement  by  that  little.  The  latest  of  our  great 
poems  is  based  upon  the  remarkable  story  of  the  self-abne- 
gation of  one  of  the  religious  heroes  of  India,  and  its  exten- 
sive circulation  is  an  indication  of  the  interest  that  is  felt  in 
the  laud  and  its  history. 

The  writer  of  the  present  volume  was  for  a  number  of  years 
resident  in  India  and  had  uncommon  advantages  for  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  the  people  of  all  ranks,  and  in  the  different 
regions.  Her  experience  enables  her  to  present  a  view  of  the 
physical  traits  of  the  country,  its  natural  wonders  and  works 
of  art,  its  cities,  towns,  temples  and  palaces,  its  languages, 
literature,  laws,  and  religious  and  social  customs,  and  her  study 
of  authentic  histories  and  books  of  travel  have  enabled  her  to 
give  a  lively  epitome  of  the  history  of  the  past  and  to  add  to 
her  own  store  of  information  with  a  freedom  from  error  that 
is  only  possible  for  one  long  personally  familiar  with  the 
country. 

The  volume  purposely  avoids  details  and  statistics,  which, 
however  valuable  in  themselves,  are  more  appropriate  in  books 
intended  rather  for  the  specialist  and  the  student  than  for  the 
use  of  the  general  reader  at  the  fireside  and  in  the  home.  The 
many  illustrations  will  make  more  real  the  descriptions  of  the 
author,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  volume  will  prove  profitable  as 
well  as  entertaining. 

A.  G. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
GEOGKAPHICAL  DIVISIONS. 

Names  —  Geography  of  Hindustan  —  Situation  —  Ex- 
treme Length  — Width  —  Area  —  Population  —  Names 
of  Races  —  Great  Mountain  Ranges  —  Special  Features 

—  Matheran   and    Khandalla  —  "Dak-bungalows "  — 
Railway  over  the   Ghauts  —  Five   Great  Divisions  of 
India   as   separated  by  Mountains   and   Rivers  —  Dis- 
tinctive Features  of  Each  —  The  Desert  —  Coast  Line 

—  Diversified  Appearance  of  Coast,   Bays,   Harbors,     17 
Rivers,  and  Islands. 

CHAPTER    II. 
MOUNTAIN   SYSTEMS. 

Highest  Peaks  of  the  Himalayas  —  Oriental  Traditions  — 
Mountains,  Table-lands,  Plains,  and  Valleys  —  Botan- 
ical Garden  at  Mussoorri  —  Sikkim  Hills  —  Dharjeling 
and  its  Sanitarium  —  Its  History  and  Surroundings  — 
Mountain  Vehicles  —  Pur  Pundjal  —  Simla  and  its 
Court  —  Kalka  —  Simoor  Mountains  —  Mountain  Scen- 
ery and  People,  Villages  and  Products,  Climate  and 


rl  CONTENTS. 

Minerals  —  Bhadrinath  —  Its  Temple  and  Tank  — 
Chirra  Punjee  —  Ajmere  and  Terraglmr  —  Maghar  Pa- 
har  —  Salt  Plains  —  Tintonni  and  the  Tbakours  — 
Black  Mail  —  Kairwarra  —  Vindhyas  and  Ghauts  — 
Climate  and  Scenery  —  Geological  Features  —  Banga- 
lore and  Mysore  —  Mountain  Shrines  and  Temples  — 
Neilgherry  Hills  —  Smugglers  and  the  Discovery  — 
Mount  Kartery,  Kaytee  Pass  and  Kaytee  House  — 
Influence  of  Mountains  on  Climate  and  Health.  65 

CHAPTER  III. 
POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

British  India  —  Political  Divisions  —  Area  and  Population 
—  Presidency  of  Bengal  —  Beginning  and  Growth  of 
Anglo-Indian  Power  — Battle  of  Plassey —  Calcutta  — 
Its  Origin  and  History  —  The  Black  Hole  —  Opium 
Monopoly  —  Products  and  Trade  of  Bengal  —  Chan- 
dernagore  —  Fort  William  —  Government  House  — 
European  and  Native  Quarters  of  Calcutta  —  Presi- 
dency of  Madras  —  Its  Components  —  The  Carnatic  — 
Varieties  of  Climate  —  Bangalore  and  Hyder  Ali  — 
The  Fort  and  its  History  —  Seringapatan  and  Tippoo, 
the  "  Tiger  "  —  Cochin  — Arcot  —  Travancore  and 
its  Rajahs  —  Rulers  of  Vizianagram  —  History  of  the 
Circars  —  Cananore  —  Vellore  and  its  Tragedy  —  The 
City  of  Madras  —  Its  Origin  and  History  —  Fort  and 
"Black  Town" — Mount  Road  —  Government  House 
and  its  Belongings  —  Prince  of  Wales  Liveries  — 
European  Dwellings  —  Street  Sights  and  Equipages  — 
Educational  Institutions,  etc.  115 

CHAPTER   IV. 
PRESIDENCY  OF   BOMBAY. 

Presidency  of  Bombay  —  Its  Constituents  —  Climate,  Soil, 
and  Productions  of  several  Sections  —  Regulation  of 


CO  A' TEXTS.  vii 

Land  Tax  —  First  Indian  Railway  —  Oilier  Railways 

—  The  Telegraph  — Schools  — The  Island  of  Bombay 

—  Its  Location  and   History  —  The  "  Fort  "  —  Old  and 
New  City  —  What  the  Fort  contains  —  Routine  of  Life 
in   Indian  Cities  — Quarters  for  each  Race —  The  Par- 
sees  —  Their  Dwellings  and   Habits  —  Colaba  —  Races 
and  Residences,  Crafts  and  Wares — Arab  Horse-market 

—  Jain   Hospital    for   Dumb   Animals  —  Kindness   to 
Brute  Creatures  —  Depredations  of  Tigers  —  Cemeter- 
ies—  Malabar  Hill  —  Its  Trees  and  Shrubs  —  Govern- 
ment House —  Walkeshwar  —  Its  Temple  and  Legend 

—  Tower  of    Silence — Bycullah — Mazagon   and   its 
People  —  Flowers  and   Serpents  —  Palace   Hospital  of 
Sir    J.  Jejeebhoy,  —  Population — Commercial   Crisis 
of    1863-65  —  Surat  —  Broach,   and  its  Silver  Mosque 

—  Antiquity   of  Callian  —  Its   Ruins   and   Temple  — 
Poonah  — Situation  and  History  —  Famous  Temple  — 
Oriental    Ideas    of    Death  —  Government     House    of 
Poonah  and  What  was  Said  of  It.  162 

CHAPTER   V. 
PROVINCES  AND   PEOPLE. 

Chittagong  Tenasserirn  Provinces  —  Aracan  —  Assam  — 
The  Brahmaputra  —  Cultivation  of  Tea  —  Other  Prod- 
ucts of  Assam  —  Climate  —  Kishengurh  —  Its  History 
and  Capital  —  Cashmere  —  Its  Valley,  Climate  and 
Productions — Cashmere  Shawls  —  History  of  Cash- 
mere—  Condition  —  Afghanistan  —  Bundelcnnd  —  Its 
Location— History  —  Past  and  Recent— Hurdeo  Singh 
and  his  Exploits  —  The  Bourdilas —  Noted  Events  in 
History  of  Bundelcund  —  Chief  Towns  —  Duttiah  — 
Its  Fortifications  —  Temples  —  Palace  of  Bursing  Deo 

—  Its  Size,   Security  and    Design  — The    College    of 
Duttiah  —  Sonnaghur  and  its  Temples  — Dholepore  — 
Its  History  —  C'apital  —Mosque  —  Maha  Rajah   and 

H.  1—2 


viii  CONTENTS. 

Prince  of  Wales  —  Hindu  Bridge  —  Nourabad  —  Tomb 
of  Mohammedan  —  Lady  Author  of  Last  Century  — 
Bridge  of  Boats.  205 

CHAPTER  VI. 
GWALIOR  AND  SCINDIA. 

Ancient  Gwalior  —  Its  Fortress  and  History  —  Complica- 
tions—  Mali  a  Rajah  Scindia  and  the  English  —  Scin- 
dia's  Character  and  Martial  Proclivities  —  Sir  Dinkur 
Rao  and  the  Administration  —  New  Gwalior  —  Its 
Palaces  and  Monuments  —  Origin  and  History  of  the 
Scindias  —  The  Peishwa  and  his  Slipper-bearer  —  Ad- 
ventures of  Mahaji  Scindia  —  Daolut's  Successes  and 
Reverses  —  Territories  of  Scindia  —  Gwalioka  Lashka, 
the  new  Capital  —  Its  Origin— N  Old  and  New  Palaces 

—  Temples  —  "  Attar  and  Pan  "  —  Native  Government 

—  Ceremonies  —  Prisons.  237 

CHAPTER  VII. 
CLIMATE  AND  SOIL. 

Climate  —  Monsoons  —  Seasons  —  Their  Number  and  Char- 
acter—  Hot  Winds  at  Jeypore  and  Madras  —  Sand 
Showers — Precautions  against  Heat  —  Three  Great 
Causes  of  Famine  —  Enforced  Cultivation  of  Opium 

—  Excessive  Taxation  —  Lack  of  Irrigation  —  Lands 
taken   up  by  English  Government  and  Army  —  Evic- 
tions in  Consequence  of  Heavy  Taxes,  and  consequent 
Famine  in   some  Collectorates  —  Vegetable  Products 

—  Grains  —  Fruits  —  Water-nut  of  Cashmere  —  Euro- 
pean Vegetables  —  Native  Fruits  Excellent  and  Abund- 
ant—  Casheu-nut  —  Banian-tree   and   Fruit  —  Legend 

—  Tamarind -tree   and   Foliage  —  Famous   Kabira  Bar 
on    the   Nerbudda  —  Ancient   Pepul   of    Allahabad  — 
The  Moh wah  and  Its  Numerous  Flowers.  2l>-2 


CONTENTS.  ix 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
CASTE   SYSTEM. 

Caste  —  Its  Nature  —  Divisions  —  Grades  —  Require- 
ments—  Rules  in  regard  to  Marriage  and  Vocation  — 
Effects  of  the  System  —  Brahmins  —  their  offspring  — 
Investiture  of  a  Son  —  the  Sacred  Cord  —  Breaking 
Caste  —  Its  Penalties  —  Involuntary  Defilement  —  A 
Hundred  Thousand  Dollars  for  Restitution  of  Casle 

—  Tippoo's  tyranny   and  its   results  —  Advantages  of 
Caste  to  the  Traveller  —  Preponderance   of  Different 
Castes — Purvus  —  Khayets  —  Bunialis — Parsees — Case 

in  regard   to  Sick  and  Dying  —  Incidents.  282 

CHAPTER    IX. 
CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS. 

Introduction  of  Christianity  —  St.  Thomas  of  India  —  A 
Christian  king  —  Ecclesiastical  war  —  Portuguese  ef- 
forts—  A  new  Veda  —  Romanism  —  Protestant  mis- 
sions—  Danish  missionaries  —  The  immortal  Schwartz 

—  English    missions  —  American    missions  —  Judson 
and  others  —  The  American   Board  —  Dates  of  estab- 
lishment of  various  missions  —  Extent  of  missionary 
work  —  Great  progress.  300 

CHAPTER  X. 
EARLIEST  HISTORY. 

Antiquity  of  the  Hindus  —  Evidence  of  their  Existence  in 
the  Old  Patriarchal  Days  — Researches  of  Prinsep  and 
others  —  Early  Native  Records  and  Poems  —  Decipher- 
ing of  Ancient  Inscriptions  —  Rama,  king  of  Oude,  and 
his  Invasion  of  Ceylon  —  Who  were  the  "  Monkeys  " 
and  "Demons" — Wars — Hastinapura  a  Dynasty  — 
Subsequent  kings  of  Pandu  Dynasty  —  Kingdom  of 


x  CONTENTS. 

Magada  —  Birth  and  History  of  Gaudama,  fourth — 
Buddh  —  Ancient  Language  of  Magada  —  Chandra- 
gumpta,  the  Soudra,  and  what  he  accomplished.  321 

CHAPTER   XI. 

DECLINE  OF   THE  ARAB  POWER. 

Reign  of  Dharmasoka,  the  First  Emperor  of  India  —  His 
Wise  and  Virtuous  Policy  —  Propagation  of  Buddh- 
ism—  Extent  of  his  Dominion  —  Internal  Improve- 
ments—  Decline  of  Magada  —  And  Subjection  to  Can- 
ouj  —  Ancient  Domain  of  Canouj  —  Early  History  of 
Scindie  —  Guzerat  and  the  Rajputs  —  Malwar  and  king 
Vicramaditya  —  The  Deccan  —  Orissa  —  Successive 
Conquerors  and  Marauders  of  India  —  The  Mahrattas 

—  Alexander's  Conquests  —  Wonderful  Civilization  of 
India  Compared  with  that  of  other  Countries,  in  the 
days    before  the   Moslem  Conquests  —  Arab  Invasion 

—  Success  of  Casim  —  Sacking  of  Moulton  —  Capture 
of  Dewal  —  Rout  of  Rajputs  —  A  Woman's  Bravery — 
Casim' s  Death  —  Decline  of  Arab  Power  in  India.  ;J3C 

CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  SUPREMACY  OF  MAHMOUD. 

The  death  of  Haroun-al-Raschid  and  its  Results  —  The 
Sam  an  is  and  their  Protege  —  Promotion  of  Alptegin, 
and  Subsequent  Career  —  His  Successor  —  Character 
of  Sibektegin  —  Incident  indicative  of  Humanity  — 
Furious  encounters  with  Rajahs  of  Lahore,  Delhi  and 
others  — Sibektegin  always  victorious  —  Extension  of 
Afghan  Dominion  —  Sultan's  Death  — Accession  of  his 
Son  —  Mahmoud's  Victories  —  Triumphal  Feast  — 
Annexation  of  Pun  jaub  and  Lahore  —  Foundation  of 
Ghaznivide  Dynasty — Conquest  of  Persia  —  Death  — 
Character  —  Incidents.  H49 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
KHILIJI,    THE  SANGUINARY. 

Short  and  troublous  reigns  of  Mahmoud's  Sons  and 
Grandsons  —  Revolt  of  Lahore  —  Accession  of  Farokh- 
sad  —  Incursions  of  Seljuks  —  Wise  and  prosperous 
reign  of  Ibrahim  — Expedition  to  the  Sutlej  — Capture 
of  Cities  —  Prosperous  Reign  of  Massand  II.  —  Violent 
death  of  his  Son  —  Long  Reign  of  Behram  and  its  con- 
trasting Acts  —  Flight  and  Death  —  Accession  of  his 
Sons  and  Character  of  their  respective  Reigns  —  Divi- 
sion of  Empire  —  Ghorian  Dynasty  —  Glorious  reign  of 
Gheias-u-din — Sahib,  his  General  and  Successor  — 
Large  Accessions  of  Territory  —  Mahmoud  Ghori  and 
his  Reign  —  India  an  Independent  Kingdom  —  "  The 
Slave  Kings  "  — Kutb-u-din  —  His  Origin  and  History 
—  Altamsh  and  His  Successors  —  House  of  Khiliji, 
and  its  Extinction.  3(51 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  TOGHLAK  DYNASTY. 

Gheias-u-din  —  Military  Governor  of  Punjaub  —  The  first 
King  of  the  Toghlak  Dynasty  —  F>ents  of  his  Reign, 
and  violent  Death  A.  D.  1325  —  Accession  of  his  Son, 
Mohammed  —  Early  Successors — Subsequent  Tyranny 

—  Insurrections  and  Loss  of  Territory  —  Sudden  Death 
A.  D.  1351  —  Accession  of  Firuz  —  His  Character  and 
Long  Reign  — Later  Events  in   the  Life  of  Firuz  — 
Short  Reigns  of    his  Successors  —  Accession  of  Mah- 
moud —  Early  Events  of  his  Reign  —  Revolt  of  States 

—  Invasion  of  Tamerlane  —  Enormities  Committed  by 
Tartars  —  Devastation    of    Punjaub  —  Reduction    of 
Delhi  —  Tamerlane,  Emperor  of  India  —  Atrocities  at 
Delhi  —  Departure  of  the  Conqueror  — His  Policy  and 
Acts  —  Restoration  of  Mahmoud  —  Last  of  the  Togh- 


xii  CONTENTS. 

laks  —  Khizir  Khan  and  His  Successors —  Three  Kings 
of  the  Lodi  Dynasty  —  The  Last  of  the  Afghan  Kings 
—  Invasion  Invited  —  Conquest  of  the  Capital  by  the 
Tartan  Baber.  373 

CHAPTER  XV. 
EUROPEAN  TRADE. 

Trade  of  the  Ancients  with  India  —  Benefits  of  Alexan- 
der's Expedition  —  Former  Routes  and  Nations  en- 
gaged in  Indian  trade  —  Romans  and  Saracens  as  Pio- 
neers—  Discoverers  of  the  fifteenth  century  —  First 
Portuguese  Expedition — Opposition  of  Moors — Prompt 
.Action  of  De  Cabul  —  Results  in  Portuguese  favor  — 
Second  Portuguese  Expedition  —  Vasco  de  Gama  and 
Albuquerque  —  Papal  "Bull,"  Its  Reception — Concilia- 
tory Policy  and  Subsequent  Death  of  Albuquerque  — 
Contrasting  Administrations  of  De  Souza  and  De 
Castro,  and  their  Results  —  Death  of  De  Castro  —  Fran- 
cis Xavier — His  Character  and  Influence  —  The  Inqui- 
sition—  Its  Doings  and  Results — Advent  of  Dutch 
Power  in  India  —  Of  the  English  —  Formation  of  East 
India  Company,  A.  D.  1600.  386 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
INDIAN  RACES. 

Races  of  India  —  Rajputs  a  Paramount  Power — Their 
Origin  and  History  —  Oudeypore  and  its  People  —  The 
Late  and  Present  Maharanas  —  Their  Wonderful  Ped- 
igree, —  How  a  Maiden  of  the  Souriavanses  may  be 
Won  —  Dress  of  the  Maharana  —  His  Jewels  —  State 
and  Revenue — Honors  and  Perquisites  —  Past  and 
Present  Travel  in  Central  India — Testimony  of  Bishop 
Heber  in  1820  —  Appearance  and  Dress  of  Rajputs  — 
Ladies  of  Rajputana  —  Bards — Pertal  Singh  and  the 
Moguls,  in  1565  —  Sixteen  Omras  —  Heraldry  among 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

Rajputs  —  Maharajah  Jeypore  —  Origin  and  History  — 
Dholac  Rae  and  the  Mynas  —  How  the  Kaschwas 
lost  Caste  —  History  of  the  Mynas — Bheels  —  Their 
Origin  and  History — Appearance  and  Attire  —  Reli- 
gious Belief  —  Customs  —  A  Legend  —  The  Bheels  400 
and  Mutiny  of  1858. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

THE  MOGUL  EMPIRE— FROM  BABER  TO  AKBAR. 
Acceshion  of  Baber,  the  first  Tartan|Emperor — Insubordina- 
tion of  Rajahs — Baber's  Early  Experiences  and  History 
—  Victory  at  Paniput,  and  Subsequent  Successes  — 
Internal  Improvements  —  Short  Reign  —  His  Death, 
Character  and  Successor  —  Prosperous  Condition  of 
the  country  on  the  Accession  of  Hmnayun — His  Noble 
traits  —  Treachery  of  his  Family  and  Nobles —  Escape 
to  Persia — Long  Exile  and  Return  to  Delhi —  His  Sub- 
sequent Death  — Akbar,  the  "  boy-king" — Long  and 
Prosperous  Reign  —  The  Minister  Behram  Khan — Sub- 
jection of  Rebellious  Provinces — Chittore — Its  History 
Heroism — "Sacrifice  of  Johar"  thrice  repeated  — "The 
Holy  City"  deserted  —  Ondeypore  founded  by  the 
Rajah  of  Chittore  —  Cashmere  reduced.  431 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  MOGUL  EMPIRE  — FROM  AKBAR  TO  SHAH 
JEHAN. 

Expedition  into  the  Deccan  — Ahmednegar  —  Its  History 
and  Fortress— Rebellion  of  Akbar's  Son —  Submission 
and  Restoration  to  favor  — Akbar's  Death  —  His  Acts 
Character,  Abilities— Accession  of  Jehanghir  — Revolt 
of  his  son  Khosru  — Its  Results  —  Lahore,  the  Old  and 
the  New  —  Palace  of  Sehanghir  —  Nour  Mahal  — 
Prince  Koroun's  attempt  on  Agra— His  Junction 
with  Mohabet  —  Death  of  Jehanghir  —  Immense 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

Wealth —  Proclamation  of  Shah  Jehan  — Agra  —  Its 
History  and  Wonderful  Monuments  —  The  Taj  — 
Palace  and  Throne  of  Akbar  —  A  Legend  —  Gates  of 
Somnath  —  Mausoleum  of  the  Princess  Jehanara  — 
Mumtaj  Mahal  —  Building  of  the  Taj  —  Its  History 

—  What    People    say    of    it  —  The    Elmaddowlah  — 
Promise  of  Agra.  451 

CHAPTER     XIX. 

THE  MOGUL  EMPIRE.  —  AURUNGZEBE. 

Splendor  of  Shah  Jehan' s  Reign  —  Immense  Wealth  and 
Lavish  Expenditures  —  Peacock  Throne  —  Wise  Gov- 
ernment —  Military  Exploits  of  his  Reign  —  Troubles 
with  Mahrattas  —  Quarrels  about  the  Succession  — 
Aurungzebe  gains  the  day  —  Disposal  of  his  opponents 

—  Shah  Jehan  deposed  —  Seven  years  in  confinement 
and  Subsequent  Death  in  1665  —  Ultimate  Fate  of  the 
rivals  of  Aurungzebe  —  Names  of  Emperor,  Character 
and    abilities  —  Exploits   in   the   Deccan  —  Towns  of 
Aurungabad  and  Hyderbad  —  Fortress  of  Daoulatabad 

—  Prominent     Events    in     History  of  Ahmedabad  — 
Troubles   with    the    Mahrattas  —  Failure   of  Afghan 
Campaign  —  Disaffection  of    His  Subjects  —  Death  of  • 
the  Emperor,  1707.  473 

CHAPTER  XX. 
THE  MAHRATTAS. 

The  Mahratta  Power  —  Its  Rise,  History,  and  Wide-spread 
Influence  —  Sevaji  and  his  Successors  —  Intervening 
History  of  European  Nations  in  India  —  Growth  of 
English  Indian  Power — Its  Obstacles  and  Successes 
through  several  Reigns  —  Union  of  Old  and  New  East 
India  Companies  —  Increased  Privileges  granted  by 
New  Charter  —  Inefficient  Officers  and  Threatened 
Dangers  to  the  Colonies  —  Renewed  Depredations  of 


CONTENTS.  xv 

the  Mahrattas  —  Their  Ultimate  Fate  —  Sons  and  Suc- 
cessors of  Aurungzebe  —  Several  brief  Reigns  usher- 
ing in  the  Accession  of  Mohammed  Shah  in  1719.  491 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  MOGUL  DYNASTY  —  FROM  MOHAMMED  SHAH 
TO  THE  END  OF  THE  DYNASTY. 

Inauspicious  beginning  of  Mohammed  Shah's  Reign  — 
Troubles  with  his  Vizier  —  Hosen  Ali — Fate  of  the 
Brothers  —  Asof  Jah  and  his  Acts  —  Invasion  of  India 
by  Nadir  Shah — Plunder  and  Massacre  at  Delhi  — 
Spoils  —  Rise  of  Rohillas  —  Invasion  of  India  by 
Afghans  —  Death  of  Emperor  —  Accession  of  his  Son, 
Ahmed  Shah  —  Fresh  Invasions  of  Rohillas  and 
Afghans  —  Dissensions  —  Deposition  of  Emperor  — 
Violence  to  his  Person  —  Alarn-ghir  II.  on  the  Throne 

—  Treachery  of  Ghazni-u-din  —  Return  of  the  Afghans 

—  Massacre  and   Plunder  —  Death  of  the   Emperor — 
Fate  of  Shah   Alum  —  His   Son  —  End  of  Tartar  Dy- 
nasty— Growth  of  English  Power  —  Jealousy  of  Dutch 
and  French—  Suraj-al-Daoulah  and  the  "Black  Hole," 

—  Fleet  from  Batavia  —  Landing  of  Troops  —  Decline 

of  French  and  Dutch  Power  in  India.  507 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  ENGLISH  POWER  —  LORDS  CLIVE  AND 
HASTINGS. 

Mr.  Vansittart  s  Administration — Deposition  of  Mir  Jaf- 
fier  and  Appointment  of  Cassim  Ali  Khan  —  Disaffec- 
tion toward  Mr.  Vansittart  —  Cassim's  Treachery  — 
Various  Military  Exploits  —  Fall  of  Mongheer  and 
Patna  —  Mutinous  Indications  among  Native  Troops 
Restoration  and  Death  of  Mir  Jaffier  —  Complaints 
and  Request  of  Stock-holders  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany —  Appointment  of  Lord  Clive  —  His  Absolute 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

Authority  —  Correction  of  Abuses  —  "  Batta,"  and 
what  came  of  it  — Capture  of  Po-  dicherry  and  Nizam — 
Ali's  Opposition — Hyder  Ali — Subahdar  of  Oudh 
and  the  Rohillas —  New  Constitution  for  Indian  Prov- 
inces—  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings  —  Rajah  of 
Nuncomar  and  his  Sad  Fate  —  Caprice  of  the  Governor 
— Reverses  and  Successes  —  Duel  between  Hastings  and 
Francis  —  Hyder  —  The  Peishwa  and  the  English  — 
French  Settlement  Captured  —  Hyder  Ali  defeated.  523 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE    ENGLISH    POWER  —  TIPPOO    SAHIB   AND    HIS 
TIMES. 

Sir  Eyre  Coote  as  Governor  of  Madras  —  Wars  of  Ilycler 
Ali  and  Tippoo  —  Taking  of  Dutch  Settlements  — Gen. 
Matthews  and  his  Officers  —  Treaty,  March,  1784  — 
Supreme  Court  of  Calcutta  —  Power  Vested  therein  — 
Provincial  Councils  —  Civil  Service  —  Consolidation  of 
British  Power  —  Complicity  of  Gov.  Hastings  with 
Nabob  of  Oudh  —  General  Prosperity  of  Colonies  — 
Passage  of  Acts  by  Home  Government  —  Appointment 
of  Lord  Cornwallis  —  Treachery  of  Tippoo  —  Civil  and 
Military  Complications  —  Rajah  of  Benares  —  Nabob 
of  Oudh  —  Governor's  Share  of  Plunder  —  Pitt's  "  India 
Bill" — Renewal  of  Hostilities  —  Varying  Results  of 
several  Campaigns  —  Treaty  of  1792  —  Charter  of  East 
India  Company  renewed — Affairs  in  Oudh — Tippoo 
and  the  French — Taking  of  Seringapatam  —  Death  of 
Tippoo  —  His  Family — Mysore  dismembered —  Charac- 
ter and  Peculiarities  of  Tippoo — Invasion  of  Afghan 
King  —  Complications  among  Mahratta  Princes,  and 
Continuation  of  Hostilities — Battle  of  Assaye,  of  Las- 
warre,  and  others  —  Lord  Wellesley's  Policy — Napo- 
leon's Influence  and  Aims  in  regard  to  India  —  Cap- 
ture of  French  Islands  —  Java  —  The  Ghoorkas  —  Sue- 


CONTENTS.  xvii. 

PAGE 

cesses — Close  of  Mahratta  War  —  Last  of  the  Peish- 
was  —  Resignation  of  Gov.  Hastings.  540 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE   ENGLISH    POWER  —  BURMESE    AND    PUNJAUB 
WARS  AND  THE  CONQUEST  OF  SCINDE. 

Advent  of  Earl  of  Amherst  as  Governor-General  —  First 
Burmese  War  —  Its  Causes  and  Results  —  Second  Bur- 
mese War  —  Causes  —  Duration  and  Results  —  Two 
Noted  Events  of  Mr.  Adams'  Administration  —  Adjust- 
ment of  Dutch  and  English  Affairs  —  Singapore  — 
Queen  of  the  Indian  Seas — Peaceful  Administration 
of  Lord  William  Bentinck  —  Important  Reforms  —  Edu- 
cation and  Religions  Liberty — Initiatory  Steps  toward 
Opening  Communication  between  India  and  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  Ultimate  "  Overland  "  Steam-route  from 
England  to  India  —  Important  Changes  in  Charter  — 
Resignation  of  Governor  — His  Successor  —  Lord  Auck- 
land's Administration  a  Failure  —  The  Afghan  Cam- 
paign and  its  Terrible  Disasters  —  Recall  of  Lord  Auck- 
land —  Administration  of  Lord  Ellenborough  —  Annex- 
ation of  the  Punjaub  —  Changes  in  Charter  —  Lord 
Dalhousie's  Retirement  —  Prosperity.  572 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
THE  SEAPOY  REBELLION  — INDIA  OF  THE  PRESENT. 

The  Seapoy  Service — Great  Rebellion  —  Visit  of  Prince  of 
Wales  —  The  Afghan  War — India  of  the  Present,  under 
the  Successive  Administrations  of  the  following  Vice- 
roys: Lord  Lytton,  the  Marquis  of  Ripon,  the  Marquis 
of  Dufferin,  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  and  the  Earl  of 
Elgin.  594 

Explanation  of  Indian  Terms  ...          648 

General  Index  ......         653 


MAP.  PAGH 
The  Maharao  Rajah  of  Ulwur     ...             -23 

Sontal  Village,  Rajmahal               ....  29 

The  Dakghari.  Post  Chaise  .....  37 

Mountaineers  in  action      .....  43 

Railway  travelling  in  India  .....  51 

An  Indigo  Factory,  Allahabad     ....  57 

Peasants  of  the  Doab        .....  61 

Hindus  of  Western  Deccan          ....  67 

Inhabitants  of  the  Island  of  Salsette,  near  Bombay     .  73 

A  child  committed  to  the  river  Junna  by  its  mother     .  79 

Crossing  an  Indian  River             ....  87 

Mohammedan  School,  Allahabad             ...  91 
Entrance  of  Caves,  Elephanta     .            .            .            .95 

Interior  of  Great  Cave,  Elephanta          ...  99 

The  Lion's  Cave  on  the  Island  of  Elephanta    .            .  102 

Caves  of  Kenhari  .            .            .            ...            .  105 

Mosque  on  the  Hooghly,  near  Calcutta  .            .            .  109 

Travelling  Wagons             .....  113 

The  Mail-cart         .            .            .            .            ...  121 

The  Chopaya,  an  Indian  Carriage            .            «    .        ,  131 

Simla,  Western  Himalayas           ....  135 

The  Palace  of  the  Seths,  Ajmere            .            .            .  147 


List    of  Illustrations.  xix. 

PAGE 

Cocoanut  Trees      .                                  .  155 

Boating  on  the  Ganges      ....  163 

A  European  House,  Calcutta        .            .            .  1<>7 

Esplanade,  Calcutta          .            .            .  16!) 

Palaquin      ...                         .  •          1^3 

Bhistis  or  Water  Carrier              .  .177 

Hindoo  Jewellers   .....  181 

A  Court  of  Justice  in  a  Jungle  .            .  1^!"> 
Jugglers       . 

Native  of  Madras  .                                   •  19f) 
Young  Hindoo  Woman     . 
Serpent  Charmers  .            ... 
Carriage  of  Hindoo  Lady 

Hindoo  Women  of  Bombay  in  Ceremonial  Dress  221 

The  Festival  of  the  Serpents,  Bombay  .  225 

The  Cotton  Market:  Merchants  at  Bombay       .  227 
Persians  in  Bombay 

A  Parsee  Merchant  at  Bombay    .  239 

A  Hindoo  Temple  in  the  Black  Town,  Bombay  245 

Religious  Meeting  of  Jams,  Bombay      .  251 

Parsee  Lady  and  Her  Daughter   .  257 
Travellers  received  on  the  Frontier  of  the  State  of 

Puimah          .            .            .  268 

Dancing  Girls  at  Bombay              .            .  269 

Hill  Fortress  of  Pawangurh         .            .            .  277 

Thugs,  in  the  Prison  of  Aurungabad      .            .  .          283 
Meeting  of  Travellers  with  the  Maharajah  of   Chutter- 


pore 


289 


Facade  of  the  Palace  of  Birsiug-Deo      .  295 

Palace  of  Birsing-Deo  and  the  Lake,  Duttiah  .  .          303 


xx.  List  of  Illustrations. 

PAGE 

The  Holy  Hill  of  Sounaghur,  seen  from  the  village      .  307 

The  Mohorum  (New  Year  Festival)   at  Bhopal             .  311 

Cathacks,  (Male  Dancers)    at  Bhopal      .            .            .  317 

A  Rhinoceros  Fight           .....  323 

Colossi  of  Curwhai,  Gwalior       ....  327 

Side  View  of  the  Pal  Palace  at  Gwalior             .            .  331 

Mausoleum  of  the  Scindias,  at  Lashkar                        .  337 

The  Gopal  Bhowan  in  the  Palace  of  Digh         .            .  343 
Pavilion  of  Dewaui  Khas  (Great  Audience  Hall)   at 

Digh.               .....  351 

The  Imperial  Durbar — Dress  Reception.            .            .  353 

Temple  of  Juggernath      .            ,            .            ,            .  357 

Gentlemen  of  Behar         .            .            .            .            .  •  363 

Great  Chaitya  or  Tope  of  Sanchi             .            .             .  37"> 

Full  Dress  Reception  of  the  Maharana  of  Oudeypore  383 

Brahmins  of  Bengal           .....  391 

Car  of  Juggernath             .....  401 

Feast  of  Ganesa,  Benares             ....  407 

Chandni  Chowk  —  The  Shopping  Street,  Delhi             .  415 

Ruins  near  Delhi    .            .            .            .            .  421 

Rajpoots,  Warrior  Caste    .....  433 

The  Bazaar  of  Khoja  Syud,  Ajmere       .             .            .  437 

The  Temple  of  Mahadeva,  Kajraha        .            .            .  453 

Sambhoo  Sing,  the  Maharana  of  Meywar           .            .  455 

Durban  of  the  Maharah  of  Rewah,  at  Govindgurh       .  465 

The  Start  for  the  Hunt  in  India  .             .            .            •. .  475 

Temples  of  the  King,  at  Ulwur  .            ...  481 

The  Royal  Standard  Bearer,  in  the  Procession  of  the 

Guicowar,  at  Baroda            .        .  v          .  493 

The  Valley  of  Ambir        .            .           *            .           .  503 


List    of  Illustrations,  xxi. 

PAGB 

Principal  Gate  of  the  Palace  of  the  Emperors,  Delhi  .  513 

Zemindars  and  Jat  Peasants          ....  525 

The  Golden  Kiosk,  in  the  Valley  of  Anibir       .            .  533 
The  Tower  of  Koutub,  Plain  of  Delhi   .            .             .541 

The  Princess  Shah-Jehan             ....  545 

The  Taj  Mausoleum         .....  551 

Gardens  of  the  Taj            .....  559 

Mausoleum  of  Sheik  Shisti,  at  Futtehpore-Sikri            .  563 

Soldiers  of  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad       .            .             .  575 

Royal  Necropolis,  Golconda          ....  579 

Monument  in  the  Royal  Necropolis  at  Golconda            .  585 

Ruins  of  the  Harem  of  the  Emperor  Ahmed,  Sirkhej  .  591 

The  King's  Elephant,  in  the  Great  Procession  at  Baroda  595 

Mosque  of  Aurungzebe,  Benares             .            .             .  599 

Religious  Beggar, Benares             ....  607 

General  View  of  Bhurtepore        ....  613 

The  Broad  Stair-case  of  Funerals  on  the  Ganges,  (Cawn- 

Pore)  .  .     .   .         .  .619 

Imambara,  Lucknow         .....  623 

An  Elephant  Fight            ....  629 


INDIA, 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   DIVISIONS. 

INDIA,  Hindustan,  and  British  India,  are  names 
often,  indiscriminately  applied  as  belonging 
to  the  same  region.  Properly,  the  first  and 
second  include  the  third;  India  and  Hindustan 
being  applied  to  the  entire  Peninsula,  comprising 
within  its  bounds,  British  India,  or  all  that  portion 
under  British  control,  and  in  addition,  many 
native  Principalities,  some  of  which  are  entirely 
independent,  and  others  partially  tributar}^  to  the 
British  Provincial  Government. 

India  lies  between  Thibet  and  Little  Thibet  on 
H.J.— 2 


18  Creographical  Divisions. 

the  north,  the  Anglo-Burmese  Provinces  of  Assam 
and  Aracan  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  011  the  east, 
the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  south,  and  the  sea  of 
Arabia,  Beeloochistan  and  Afghanistan  on  the 
west.  It  extends  over  the  immense  region  lying 
between  Cape  Comorin  in  8°  of  north  latitude  and 
the  Himalayan  mountains  in  35°  of  north  latitude, 
and  from  the  Delta  of  the  Brahmaputra  on  the 
east,  to  that  of  the  Indus  on  the  west. 

Its  extreme  length  is  about  eighteen  hundred 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  along  the  parallel 
of  25°,  is  a  little  more  than  fifteen  hundred  miles  ; 
comprising  a  total  area  of  not  less  than  fifteen 
hundred  thousand  square  miles. 

The  population  of  India  is  reckoned  at  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-one  millions,  of  whom,  about 
one  million  are  Portuguese  and  their  descendants  ; 
one  hundred  thousand  are  Anglo-Saxons  ;  and  the 
remainder  are  Monguls,  Tartars,  Moors,  Arabs, 
Parsees,  Burmese,  Aracanese,  Assamese,  Peguans, 
Chinese,  Jews  and  Gypsies;  besides  the  various 
Indian  races,  viz. :  Hindus,  Bengalees,  Rajputs, 
Mahrattas,  Seikhs,  Ameers,  Bheels,  Afghans,  Gen- 
toos,  Goorkas,  Klings,  Bhootians,  Lopchas,  Todars, 
Gouuds,  Khounds,  Badagas,  and  Erulars. 


Mountain  Ranges.  19 

This  great  Peninsula  is  intersected  by  ranges  of 
lofty  mountains,  among  which  are  the  Himalayas 
in  the  northern  section  ;  the  Vindhyas,  Dounghers, 
Aravalis,  Kairmoor,  and  Rajmahal,  in  the  central ; 
and  the  several  ranges  of  Ghauts  in  the  southern 
portion  ;  thus  diversifying  the  whole  country  with 
alternating  mountains  and  valleys,  extensive  table- 
lands, deltas,  and  fertile  plains,  that  include  within 
their  several  bounds  a  very  great  diversity  of 
climate,  soil  and  productions. 

The  great  Himalayas,  that  form  the  northern 
boundary  of  India,  begin  in  Turkey,  under  the 
name  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  continue  their 
course  as  the  Elborze  Mountains  of  Persia,,  and 
the  Hindoo  Koorsh  of  Turkistan ;  then,  as  the 
Himalayas,  after  separating  Thibet  from  India, 
they  pass  entirely  across  Southern  China,  in  about 
25°  north  latitude,  where  they  are  known  as  the 
Nan-ling  range  :  thus  traversing  the  entire  conti- 
nent of  Asia,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  borders  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  distance  of  more  than  six 
thousand  miles  in  a  direct  line,  or  about  seven 
thousand  five  hundred  in  their  varying  course. 

Of  the  various  mountain-ranges  of  India,  the 
Himalayas  are  the  highest ;  the  Vindhyas  have  the 


20  Geographical  Divisions. 

most  marked  results  as  a  dividing  range,  between 
different  sections ;  the  Aravalis  are  richest  in  min- 
erals, and  have  broader  valleys  more  generally 
furrowed  by  water-courses ;  the  Dounghers  have 
some  of  the  wildest  scenery,  with  narrow  gorges 
overhung  with  nearly  black  rocks,  abrupt  preci- 
pices, huge  blocks  of  white  quartz  gleaming  in 
the  sunlight,  and  here  and  there,  hidden  in  the 
midst  of  these  mountain  heights,  an  oasis  of  won- 
drous beauty  ;  the  Kairmoors,  that  cross  Bogel- 
cund  between  the  Ganges  and  Nerbudda  rivers, 
divide  the  land  into  two  slopes,  and  unite  two 
mountain  ranges,  i.  e.,  the  Vindhyas  and  the  group 
of  Rajmahal ;  while  the  Ghauts  have  a  formation 
altogether  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  are,  in  many 
respects,  different  from  any  other  chain  in  Asia. 
Being  the  edges  of  the  great  table-land  of  the 
Deccan,  each  range  of  the  Ghauts  consists  of  only 
one  rugged  side  which  faces  the  water,  forming 
all  along  the  sea  an  unbroken  wall.  There  are 
here  and  there  defiles,  with  steps  descending  to 
the  sea-shore ;  many  of  the  hills  are  covered  with 
dense  jungle  ;  others  have  been  partially  cleared, 
and  are  adorned  with  lovely,  picturesque  little 
villas,  and  bungalows  half  hidden  in  shrubs  and 


"  Dak-Bungalows:'  21 

flowers;  while  several  prominent  peaks  are  points 
of  great  interest  to  the  tourist.  On  one  of  the 
Western  Ghauts  stands  a  Hindu  temple,  its  slender 
spire  girt  about  with  vapory  clouds ;  another, 
Mount  Bao  Mallim,  has  its  highest  peak  surmounted 
by  an  ancient  fortress  that  is  entered  from  the  out- 
side by  a  flight  of  some  three  hundred  steps  cut  out 
of  the  solid  rock;  and  at  the  foot  of  a  third,  is  prettily 
laid  out  the  little  village  of  Kampouli,  which  leads 
to  the  defile  of  the  Bhore  Ghaut,  whence  an  Eng- 
lish railway  goes  direct  to  the  celebrated  Sanita- 
rium of  Matheran. 

Upon  the  mountain,  half  a  mile  from  the  Sani- 
tarium, is  the  "Dak-bungalow"  of  Khandalla. 
These  "  Daks  "  are  quite  an  institution  in  British 
India,  a  god-send  to  the  foreign  tourist  he  soon 
learns  to  appreciate,  and  an  absolute  necessity  in 
a  country  like  this  wholly  destitute  of  hotels  at  all 
suited  to  the  accommodation  of  Europeans.  The 
"  Daks  "  are  bungalows  (that  is,  one-story  dwelling 
houses  shaded  by  long,  covered  verandas)  con- 
structed by  the  British  Government,  at  regular 
intervals,  on  the  chief  military  roads  throughout 
the  Peninsula;  and  in  these  wayside  dwellings  any 
traveller  has  a  right  to  twenty-four  hours'  lodging, 


22  Geographical  Divisions. 

with  the  use  of  furniture  and  servants,  for  the 
small  sura  of  one  Rupee  (forty-five  cents).  He 
may  continue  for  a  longer  period  at  the  same  rate, 
provided  his  room  is  not  needed  for  a  new-comer  ; 
but  after  having  occupied  it  for  a  day  and  night, 
he  must,  perforce,  yield  his  place  to  the  first  trav- 
eller who  arrives,  if  there  is  no  other  vacant  room. 

Provisions,  including  fresh  fruits  and  excellent 
tea  or  coffee,  may  usually  be  obtained  at  moderate 
rates  through  the  "  Dak "  servants ;  and  on  a 
long  journey,  in  that  hot  and  unhealthy  climate, 
it  is  often  a  very  great  benefit  to  the  weary  trav- 
eller to  stop  for  a  day  and  night  where  he  may 
obtain  a  good  bed  and  several  comfortable  meals 
before  proceeding  on  his  way. 

The  bungalow  of  the  Khandalla  is  built  on  the 
extreme  edge  of  the  table-land  overlooking  a  deep 
ravine,  while  on  one  side  rises  a  mountain,  and  on 
the  other  a  magnificent  cascade  falls  three  hundred 
feet  into  the  valley  below. 

Excellent  roads  running  all  around  the  table- 
land of  Matheran  extend  along  by  the  very  edge 
of  the  precipice,  exhibiting  a  panorama  rarely 
beautiful  and  varied.  It  is  only  within  a  few 
years  past  —  little  more  than  a  single  decade  — 


THE   MAHARAO    RAJAH   OF   ULWUR. 


The  Peninsular  Railway.  25 

that  Matheran  has  been  known  to  Europeans ; 
and  its  reputation  is  already  wide-spread,  as  having 
saved  many  valuable  lives  afflicted  with  diseases 
hitherto  regarded  as  incurable  in  a  tropical  climate. 
This  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Ghauts  table-lands,  the  wonderful  efficacy  of  their 
pure  air  and  invigorating  climate  in  the  cure  of 
nearly  all  the  ailments  indigenous  to  the  Indian 
low-lands. 

The  works  executed  on  the  great  "  Indian  Pe- 
ninsular Railway,"  to  make  the  passage  across  the 
Ghauts  Mountains,  are  among  the  most  famous  of 
our  day.  The  rugged,  almost  impassable  moun- 
tains, beset  with  thick  jungles  and  deep  ravines, 
rendered  every  step  of  the  vast  enterprise  full  of 
difficulty  and  danger,  that  only  Anglo-Saxon 
energy  and  perseverance  could  have  success- 
fully encountered.  .  The  total  height  surmounted 
is  eighteen  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  on  a  line 
of  fifteen  miles,  with  a  mean  inclination  of  one 
in  forty-eight.  Eight  viaducts  were  construct- 
ed, of  from  thirty  to  fifty  arches,  and  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet  high.  Twenty-two 
tunnels  were  cut,  of  a  total  length  of  nearly  two 
miles,  and  embankments  were  made,  containing 


26  Geographical  Divisions. 

upwards  of  six  millions  of  cubic  feet.  The  work 
was  completed  in  seven  years,  at  a  cost  of  £800,- 
000,  or  about  four  millions  of  dollars.  The  entire 
route  of  the  road  passes  through  regions  of  won- 
drous beauty  and  grandeur  ;  alternately  penetrating 
gorges,  traversing  mountains,  and  skirting  fright- 
ful ravines  dark  and  deep  enough  to  turn  the  brain 
giddy  with  a  single  glance  into  their  fathomless 
depths.  This  road  at  first  only  united  Bombay 
with  the  Deccan,  but  was  afterwards  lengthened 
to  Calcutta ;  and  British  India  is  rapidly  becoming 
one  vast  system  of  railways,  extending  over  all  the 
principal  military  routes,  and  connecting  the  larger 
cities  and  chief,  places  of  resort.  One  of  the  latest 
is  "  The  Dhoud  and  Vingorla  State  Railway," 
through  the  rich  Southern  Marathi  country,  via 
Belgaum,  Kolapoor,  and  Satara. 

Hindustan  is  divided  into  five  great  sections, 
their  lines  marked  by  mountain  ranges  and  rivers. 

These  divisions  are  as  follows :  First,  the  Delta 
of  the  Indus,  consisting  of  the  north  and  north- 
west portions  of  India.  Second,  the  Delta  of  the 
Ganges,  or  Eastern  Hindustan.  Third,  Central 
India,  or  all  the  region  north  of  the  Vindhya  Moun- 
tains between  the  Deltas  of  the  Indus  and  Ganges. 


Kyber  Pass.  27 

Fourth,  the  Deccan,  embracing  the  section  south  of 
the  Vindhyas,  to  the  river  Kishna.  Fifth,  Southern 
India,  or  the  region  south  of  the  Kishna  to  Cape 
Comorin. 

The  first  division  lies  mainly  to  the  east  of  the 
river  Indus,  beginning  in  the  vicinity  of  Attock, 
and  extending  southward  and  westward  to  the 
region  where  the  Indus  discharges  its  waters  into 
the  Arabian  sea.  This  section  comprehends  a  vast 
territory,  including  the  Punjaub,  Scinde,  and  sev- 
eral smaller  states,  with  the  addition,  by  the  recent 
treaty,  of  several  portions  of  Afghan  territory, 
among  them  the  famous  Kyber  Pass,  now  a  British 
outpost,  with  the  Khurum  and  Khost  valleys  as 
British  granaries.  The  Punjaub,  or  "  country  of 
the  five  rivers,"  forms  the  southern  portion  of  the 
plain  of  the  Indus,  and  extends  from  the  base  of 
the  Himalayas  to  the  confluence  of  the  Chenaub 
with  the  Indus.  "  The  five  rivers  "  giving  name  to 
this  region,  are  the  Sutlej,  Beas,  Ravee,  Chenaub, 
and  Jhalum,  known  to  the  ancients  under  the  names 
of  Zaradus,  Hyphasis,  Hydrastes  Acesines,  and  Hy- 
daspes.  They  all  have  their  source  in  the  Hima- 
layas, all  observe  a  nearly  direct  course  to  the 
southwest  for  some  six  hundred  miles,  and  pour 


28  Geographical  Divisions. 

theii-  united  waters  through  the  Chenab  into  the 
Indus,  at  the  northern  point  of  the  desert  of 
Scinde. 

The  Punjaub  is  inhabited  mainly  by  Seikhs,  a 
bold,  warlike  race,  who  bravely  withstood  the 
inroads  of  British  power,  and  proved  themselves 
very  formidable  foes  in  some  of  the  most  hotly- 
contested  struggles  of  modern  times.  But  it  was 
of  no  avail :  the  Punjaub  and  Scindia,  king- 
doms no  longer,  are  now  merely  appendages  of 
Great  Britain,  with  an  English  "  Resident "  gov- 
erning at  Lahore.  The  Punjaub  is  by  far  the  most 
fertile  and  populous  portion  of  the  Delta  of  the 
Indus,  numbering  between  three  and  four  millions 
of  inhabitants.  Umritsur,  with  a  population  of 
one  hundred  thousand,  is  the  sacred  city  of  the 
Seikhs;  Lahore,  their  ancient  capital,  and  now 
the  British  seat  of  government,  has  eighty -five 
thousand  inhabitants;  and  Moulton,  prettily  sit- 
uated on-  the  Chenab,  has  sixty-five  thousand. 

South  of  the  Punjaub,  is  Scinde,  formerly  a 
powerful  state,  governed  by  Ameers.  Its  present 
population  is  little  more  than  a  million ;  and  of  its 
chief  cities,  Hydrabad,  Patta,  Sikkur,  Shikarpore, 
Kurrachee,  not  one  has  over  twenty-five  thousand 


The  Thor.  31 

inhabitants,  Except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  river,  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  of  little  value  for 
agricultural  purposes.  The  Thor  or  Desert  is  ruled 
by  Rajput  Princes,  petty  chiefs,  who  are  in  al- 
liance with  the  British  Government,  and  carry  on 
quite  a  thriving  trade,  under  foreign  surveil- 
lance— a  system  far  more  tantalizing  to  the  British 
official,  than  effectual  in  controlling  the  irregulari- 
ties of  so  unscrupulous  a  fraternity  as  these  Rajput 
rulers  of  the  Thor. 

The  Second  Division,  the  Plain  of  the  Ganges, 
includes  the  districts  of  Behar,  Oudh,  Pirhut, 
Rohilcunde,  Allahabad,  and  last,  and  most  impor- 
tant of  all,  Bengal,  one  of  the  three  great  Presi- 
dencies of  India.  This  Second  Division,  entirely 
under  British  control,  has  a  population  of  nearly 
seventy-millions,  and  is  by  far  the  most  fertile  and 
populous  portion  of  British  India.  Behar  is  noted 
as  the  birth-place  of  Buddhism  ;  and  Patna,  its  cap- 
ital, is  accepted  now  as  the  Palibothra  of  the 
ancients,  the  capital  of  the  Mauryas  Emperors 
who  received  the  Greek  embassadors  of  the  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander.  But  the  present  insignifi- 
cant town,  with  its  dirty  bazaars  and  tumble- 


32  G-eographical  Divisions. 

down   houses    does    violence    to   everything   like 
classic  memories. 

The  Kurruckpore  Hills,  an  offshoot  of  the  Vin- 
dhyas,  form  the  boundary  between  Behar  and  the 
Terai  jungle.  These  Hills  abound  in  mineral 
springs,  and  are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  Kolee 
savages. 

Oudh  or  Aoudh,  familiar  to  every  reader,  from 
the  names  of  Cawnpore  and  Lucknow,  as  associa- 
ted with  the  terrible  massacre  of  1857,  was  a  very 
ancient  kingdom,  governed  by  Mahratta  Princes 
until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  Con- 
sisting of  rich  agricultural  lands,  watered  by  the 
Ganges,  and  possessing  several  large  and  populous 
cities,  with  considerable  commercial  importance, 
it  has  proved  to  the  English  a  rich  and  valuable 
possession.  The  deposed  king  enjoys  a  large  pen- 
sion of  $500,000  from  the  British  Government,  and 
lives  as  a  State  prisoner  in  a  magnificent  palace 
beautifully  located  at  Garden  Reach,  near  Cal- 
cutta. 

Allahabad  is  one  of  the  richest  provinces  of 
India.  Watered  by  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  as 
well  as  by  canals,  it  produces  abundant  crops  of 
maize,  cotton,  sugar,  indigo  and  flax.  Its  popula- 


Bengal.  33 

tion  is  nearly  four  millions,  with  an  area  of  eleven 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty-six  square  miles. 
Bengal  proper  is  the  low,  fertile,  and  densely- 
populated  region  lying  on  the  lower  Ganges,  in 
the  section  round  about  Calcutta.  The  Ganges, 
the  most  lawless  of  rivers,  runs  riot  over  nearly 
every  portion  of  Bengal,  first  inundating  one  sec- 
tion, destroying  everything  in  its  course,  and  then 
suddenly  withdrawing,  and  forming  for  itself  new 
paths  to  the  ocean.  These  flat,  low,  swampy  lands 
are  good  for  nothing  in  the  world  but  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rice,  and  as  the  birth-place  of  a  pestilential 
miasma,  created  by  the  constant  evaporation  of 
stagnant  water  that  escapes  in  the  form  of  a  blu- 
ish vapor,  filling  the  air  with  poisonous  exhala- 
tions. The  laborer  needs  only  to  turn  the  soil 
with  his  pick  or  shovel  to  find  pools  beneath ;  and, 
in  truth,  this  whole  region  is  neither  land  nor  wa- 
ter, but  mud,  mud,  mud !  which,  in  other  than  a 
tropical  clime,  would  .  be  only  unapproachable 
swamp.  Here  cholera  finds  its  natural  home, 
among  the  densely-populated  villages  lying  half- 
buried  in  the  rice-fields,  stifled  under  creeping- 
plants,  and  shut  out  by  the  rank  growth  from  the 

life-giving   rays   of  sunlight,   while  everything  is 
H.  I.— 3 


34  Geographical  Divisions. 

reeking  with  perpetual  moisture  mingled  with  the 
noxious  fumes  of  vegetable  decay.     Asiatic   chol- 
era, born  here,  travels  westward  with  the    crowds 
of  Hindu  devotees  who   go  annually  to  the  great 
sanctuaries  of  the   north  and   west;    and   thence 
it  is  readily  conveyed  to  Mecca  and  Constantino- 
ple by  Moslem  pilgrims  and  traders,  to  be  scat 
tered  far  and  wide   over  both   continents.     Thi 
terrible  disease  first   appeared  in   the   district   o 
Nuddah,  in  1817,   and  since   that  period  has   sel- 
dom disappeared  from  India. 

Rice  planters  often  disinter,  from  their  moist 
fields  several  leagues  from  the  river,  the  frame-work 
of  boats,  and  even  portions  of  larger  vessels  that 
had  been  sunk  in  the  deep  waters  that  long  ago, 
in  some  unknown  past,  covered  the  rice-fields  of 
the  present  day. 

Beyond  these  swamp-lands,  the  east  of  this  prov 
ince  is  made  up   of  monotonous   plains   crowned 
with  emerald  verdure,  and  thickly  dotted  with  vil- 
lages swarming  with  inhabitants. 

Between  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Plain  of 
the  Ganges  and  the  Plain  of  the  Indus  is  a  flat, 
sterile  region,  known  as  the  Doab.  It  does  not  be- 
long properly  to  either  of  the  great  Divisions  of 


Central  India.  35 

India,  but  is  mentioned  here,  from  its  proximity  to 
those  named  above.  It  is  ruled  by  several  Seikh 
Rajahs,  who  are  in  alliance  with  the  British ;  but 
is  of  little  importance  either  politically  or  other- 
wise. 

Central  India,  the  third  great  Division  of  Hindus- 
tan, embraces  all  that  section  of  the  peninsula 
north  of  the  Vindhya,  between  the  Deltas  of  the 
Indus  and  Ganges.  Triangular  in  form,  its  base  is 
the  mountains,  and  its  apex  the  region  south  of 
Delhi.  It  is  composed  mainly  of  elevated  table- 
lands, interspersed  with  mountain  ranges,  and 
lovely  fertile  plains  abounding  in  valuable  pro- 
ducts. Nearly  the  whole  of  this  Division  is  occu- 
pied by  native  Principalities,  many  of  which  are 
not  only  wholly  independent,  their  princes  main- 
taining the  state  of  sovereigns,  but  they  are  pos- 
sessed of  immense  wealth,  and  have  vast  resources 
for  peace  and  war. 

The  Fourth  and  Fifth  Divisions  of  India  are  the 
Deccan  and  Southern  India,  divided  only  by  the 
river  Kishna,  and  the  two  extending  from  the 
south  side  of  the  Vindhyas  to  Cape  Comorin.  The 
distinguishing  feature  of  these  regions  is  the  lofty 
mountain  ranges  that  girt  them  about  on  every 


36  G-eographical  Divisions. 

side,  and  are  known  respectively,  as  the  Northern, 
Southern,  Eastern  and  Western  Ghauts.  The 
Eastern  and  Western  ranges  skirt  the  sea  at  dis- 
tances varying  from  ten  to  about  eighty  miles, 
those  on  the  western  coast  approaching  nearest  to 
the  sea-board.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  this 
range,  stretching  out  to  the  eastward,  are  the 
famous  Neilgherry  mountains,  so  highly  esteemed 
for  their  fertile  soil  and  salubrious  atmosphere.  At 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  same  range,  immedi- 
ately opposite  Bombay,  are  the  Mahabalipura  moun- 
tains rising  something  more  than  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  British  territory  in  the 
Deccan,  divided  between  the  Presidencies  of  Bom- 
bay and  Madras,  does  not  exceed  forty  thousand 
square  miles.  A  portion  of  the  table-lands  is  very 
fertile  and  well  cultivated ;  but  the  mountains 
themselves  are  generally  sterile,  though  the  valleys 
between  have  extensive  forests  of  lofty  timber, 
reaching  down  to  the  plains,  often  to  the  water's 
edge.  The  belt  or  lowlands  around  the  peninsula, 
between  the  Ghauts  and  the  seashore,  is  British 
territory  exclusively.  It  varies  widely,  not  only 
in  breadth,  but  in  fertility ;  the  first  few  miles 
nearest  the  sea  being  always  flat  and  sandy.  Where 


\ 


Southern  India.  39 

the  width  of  the  slip  does  not  exceed  eight  or  ten 
miles,  there  will  be  only  this  barren  tract  up  to  the 
base  of  the  mountains;  but,  where  the  mountains 
are  more  remote  from  the  sea,  there  is  often  inter- 
vening between  the  sandy  shore-land  and  the  low- 
est ledge  of  the  mountains,  ten,  twenty,  perhaps 
fifty  or  more  miles  of  extremely  rich  and  produc- 
tive soil ;  the  land  gradually  rising  as  it  nears  the 
mountains,  until  it  is  merged  in  the  jungle  of  teak 
and  satin-wood.  The  Malabar  territory  extends 
from  Cape  Comorin  to  12°  north  latitude ;  Canara 
from  12°  to  15°,  and  the  Concoii  from  15°  to  22°. 
The  harbor  of  Bombay  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  formed  by  the  peculiar  position  and  close 
proximity  of  a  group  of  islands  that  shut  in  an 
arm  of  the  sea  along  the  mainland,  making  a 
superb  bay,  of  which  Bombay  commands  the 
entrance.  These  islands,  located  in  front  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Oolas,  the  chief  river  of  the  Con  con, 
appear  to  form  a  sort  of  Delta,  often  so  called. 
Callian,  the  ancient  .capital  of  the  Concon,  long 
one  of  the  first  commercial  ports  of  southern  India, 
is  on  this  river.  Viewed  from  whatever  point,  the 
harbor  of  Bombay  always  unfolds  a  panorama  of 
surpassing  beauty,  its  ever-changing  scenes  always 


40  Geographical   Divisions. 

new,  and  each  seemingly  more  lovely  than  the  last. 
In  all  the  East,  it  has  scarcely  a  counterpart,  for 
either  safety  and  commodiousness,  or  for  the  ra- 
diant beauty  of  its  surroundings.  The  peculiarly- 
favorable  location  of  Bombay  in  regard  to  com- 
merce seems  to  have  been  understood  from  remote 
antiquity,  there  being  little  doubt  that  this  group  of 
islands  is  the  Archipelago  of  Heptanesia  alluded 
to  by  the  geographer  Arrian.  The  island  of  Sal- 
sette,  the  largest  of  the  group,  was  that  first  occu- 
pied by  the  Portuguese  colonists,  and  it  was  at  a 
much  later  period,  after  the  fortification  of  Tanna 
and  Bassein,  that  the  port  of  Bombay  was  even 
thought  of. 

The  eastern  or  Madras  coast-line  is  much  ex- 
posed to  the  fury  of  the  southwest  monsoon,  dur- 
ing the  prevalence  of  which  native  vessels  are  un- 
able to  venture  out,  and  terrible  storms  frequently 
occur,  endangering  the  safety  of  large  ships  all 
along  the  coast.  Coringa  is  the  only  harbor  where 
vessels  of  any  considerable  size  may  take  refuge 
during  these  violent  "squalls."  There  being  no  in- 
dentation of  this  coast,  nor  any  island  to  break  off 
the  sea,  a  heavy,  rolling  swell  prevails  throughout 
the  year.  To  avoid  danger,  vessels  anchor  in  the 


The  Eastern   Coast.  41 

open  roads ;  those  of  large  size  keeping  a  mile  or 
two  from  the  shore,  the  swell  causing  them  to 
pitch  and  roll  as  though  out  on  mid-ocean. 

During  the  prevalence  of  the  southwest  mon- 
soon the  danger  is  so  great  that  for  several 
months  vessels  are  required  to  anchor  still  farther 
out,  and  to  have  their  cargoes  loaded  and  unload- 
ed by  means  of  boats  adapted  for  passing  through 
the  surf.  The  anchorage  looks  deserted,  and  pas- 
sengers to  or  from  the  ships  have  to  be  waited 
on  by  catamarans — a  sort  of  broad  raft,  not  unlike  a 
New  England  stone-sled.  They  are  constructed  by 
tying  together,  horizontally,  three  flattened  timbers 
eight  or  ten  feet  long,  then  sharpening  the  point, 
and,  laying  over  all  a  slight  floor  or  coarse  mat 
slitted  where  the  timbers  are  joined.  On  this  mat 
the  rowers  sit  cross-legged,  with  the  toes  bent  in- 
ward ;  and  in  this  position,  which  is  the  only  one 
the  case  admits,  they  often  remain  for  many  con- 
secutive hours,  propelling  their  rude  crafts  with 
slender  paddles  sharpened  at  both  ends,  and 
dipped  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other. 
The  water  of  course  rises  between  the  timbers 
and  washes  over  the  little  raft,  wetting  the  rowers 
to  their  hips,  and  sometimes  they  may  be  washed 


42  Geographical  Divisions. 

overboard ;  but,  in  such  cases,  they  leap  nimbly 
into  their  places,  and  row  on  again  as  nonchalantly 
as  before.  The  catamaran  will  float  safely  with  a  sea 
so  rough  that  an  ordinary  boat  could  not  survive 
for  five  minutes,  and  these  boatmen  do  not  mind  a 
good  wetting.  Their  clothing  is  very  slight  in- 
deed, consisting  of  but  a  single  strip  of  muslin  or 
calico,  with  the  addition  of  the  water-proof  cap,  that 
constitutes  a  very  important  part  of  the  outfit 
needed  by  a  Madras  boatman,  in  his  particular  vo- 
cation. In  this  cap,  containing  more  pockets  than 
a  peddler's  overcoat,  the  boatman  will  carry,  aiui 
keep  them  perfectly  dry,  letters,  papers,  and  small 
parcels  of  all  sorts,  to  and  from  the  shore.  Larger 
packages  must  be  protected  on  all  sides,  by  either 
tin  or  oil-cloth  covers,  and  lashed  tightly  to  the 
catamarans.  In  mild  weather,  large,  deep  boats 
are  used,  made  without  ribs,  of  thin,  wide  planks 
warped  by  fire  to  a  proper  shape,  and  tied  together 
by  strong  twine,  which  also  serves  to  keep  in  place 
the  straw  and  mud  used  in  calking  the  seams. 
There  is  not  a  single  nail  in  the  entire  craft,  from 
stem  to  stern,  for  none  could,  by  any  possible  con- 
trivance, be  kept  in  place,  under  the  sort  of  usage 
to  which  Madras  boats  are  destined.  The  getting 


MOUNTAINEERS    IN    ACTION. 


The   Ganges.  45 

ashore  without  a  very  respectable  drenching,  is  cer- 
tainly an  art  in  which  one  would  seem  to  need 
practice  in  order  to  be  made  perfect,  and  these 
Madras  men  display  a  skill  and  energy  scarcely  to 
be  surpassed.  Keeping  time  to  a  very  peculiar 
tune,  they  take  first  a  long  pull  and  then  a  short 
one,  according  to  the  motion  of  the  waves,  till  at 
length  they  push  the  boat  forward  on  a  foaming 
surf,  and  she  is  thrown  upon  the  beach.  As  she 
recedes,  some  jump  out  with  the  ropes,  and  at  each 
returning  wave  they  get  her  a  little  higher  up,  till 
she  lies  motionless  upon  the  sands,  like  a  great 
fish  thrown  high  and  dry  upon  the  beach  at  low 
tide. 

The  Ganges,  the  holy  river  of  the  Hindus.,  has 
such  a  history  as  could  be  revealed  by  no  other 
stream  in  the  wide  world.  Descending  from  a  level 
of  fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  run- 
ning a  course  of  fifteen  hundred  miles,  it  receives  at 
every  point  the  most  devout  adoration.  "  The 
touch  of  its  waters,  nay,  the  very  sight  of  them, 
takes  away  all  sin."  So  say  the  Hindu  Shasters, 
and  to  their  fiat  all  yield  unquestioning  assent. 
Drowning  in  the  holy  river  is  deemed  an  act  of 
merit;  and  thousands  of  sick  people  endure  the 


46  Geographical  Divisions. 

fatigue  of  long  journeys  that  they  may  die  upon 
its  banks.  The  very  name  is  derived  from  that  of 
the  goddess  Gunga,  who,  the  Hindus  say,  was  pro- 
duced from  the  moisture  cf  Vishnu's  foot,  caught 
by  Brahma,  and  preserved  in.  his  alms-dish ;  and 
Gunga,  coming  down  from  heaven,  divided  herself 
into  one  hundred  streams,  the  mouths  of  the 
Ganges.  In  Hindu  courts  of  justice,  the  water  of  the 
Ganges  is  sworn  upon,  as  the  Bible  is  in  ours  ;  and 
it  has  been  estimated  that  from  three  to  five  hun- 
dred thousand  people  assemble  annually  at  certain 
points  of  this  river  that  they  may,  at  the  most 
propitious  moment,  bathe  in  its  sacred  waters ;  and 
hundreds  are  crushed  to  death  in  their  frantic  at- 
tempts to  press  through  the  crowd.  The  Hooghly 
is  one  of  the  many  streams  by  which  the  Ganges 
empties  its  waters  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
the  most  sacred  of  its  numerous  mouths. 

The  Indus,  the  great  river  of  northwestern 
India,  rises  in  the  Himalayas,  and  with  its  tributa- 
ries, waters  the  great  regions  of  the  Punjaub  and 
Scinde,  entering  the  ocean  at  the  western  extrem- 
ity of  the  Desert.  The  fertilizing  effects  of  the 
periodical  inundations  of  this  river  are  felt  for  full 
forty  miles,  not  only  over  other  portions  of  Sciiide, 


The  Jumna.  47 

as  far  as  the  western  extremity  of  the  province, 
but  even  on  the  Thorr  itself,  where  occur  occa- 
sional oases  of  considerable  fertility. 

The  Indus  is  crossed,  near  Attok,  by  a  bridge  of 
boats  ;  and  the  scenery  around  is  picturesque  and 
beautiful. 

The  Nerbudda,  next  to  the  Indus,  is  the  most 
important  of  the  rivers  that  discharge  their  waters 
into  the  sea  of  Oman.  It  waters  Central  India, 
and  marks  the  boundary  between  that  division  and 
the  Deccan  ;  and,  to  the  Hindus,  it  is  scarcely  less 
sacred  than  the  Ganges.  The  Jumna  is  a  magnifi- 
cent tributary  of  the  Ganges  ;  and  the  Bangunga, 
i.  c.,  "Sister  of  the  Ganges,"  is  one  of  the  tributa- 
ries of  the  Jumna.  It  has  its  source  in  the  Kali 
Kho  and  Mewati  Hills,  and  after  a  course  of  more 
than  two  hundred  miles,  it  discharges  its  waters 
into  the  Jumna.  The  bed  of  the  river,  only  a  few 
miles  from  its  source,  is  full  three  hundred  yards 
wide,  increasing  to  more  than  double  this  breadth 
towards  the  mouth.  During  the  rains,  it  rushes 
down  from  the  mountains  in  a  foaming  torrent, 
not  only  filling  this  huge  channel,  but  often  over- 
flowing its  banks,  and  submerging  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  entire  course  of  this  river  is 


48  Geographical  Divisions. 

through  a  fertile  and  beautiful  region,  especially 
opposite  Sheikoabad,  where  it  empties. 

The  Chenaub  is  the  largest  of  the  five  rivers 
from  which  the  Punjaub  derives  its  name.  Rising 
among  the  Himalayas,  on  the  borders  of  Cash- 
mere, and  holding  a  southwest  course,  it  unites 
first  with  the  Jhalum  ;  fifty  miles  farther  on,  with 
the  Ravee  ;  then  with  the  Ghara  or  Lower  Sutlej  ; 
from  which  point,  it  loses  its  name,  and  the  united 
stream  is  called  Punjuud,  which  enters  the  Indus, 
just  beyond  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Punjaub. 
One  very  singular  feature  of  this  river  is,  that  the 
red  waters  of  the  Chenaub  and  the  pale  waters  of 
the  Ghara,  each  retain  their  distinct  character  for 
many  miles  down  the  united  stream,  where  may  be 
plainly  seen  the  red  on  the  western  side,  and  the 
pale  on  the  eastern  ;  but,  when  weary  of  coquet- 
ting, their  union  is  finally  consummated,  and  a 
modified  tint  of  paler-red  or  redder-pale  is  the 
result. 

The  Chumbul  is  a  large  river  of  Central  India 
that  rises  011  the  northern  slope  of  the  Vindhyas 
at  a  height  of  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  After  a  north  and  northeasterly  course,  it 
unites  with  the  Jumna,  about  ninety  miles  south- 


The  Betwa.  49 

east  of  Agra.  Its  whole  length  is  about  five  hun- 
dred and  seventy  miles,  and  it  has  among  its  trib- 
utaries the  Scinde  and  Parbuttee  rivers.  During 
a  considerable  portion  of  its  course  the  Clmmbul 
forms  the  boundary  between  the  Principality  of 
Gwalior  and  the  Rajput  Provinces. 

The  Scinde  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
wild  region  of  Bundelcunde  and  the  kingdom  of 
Duttiah.  It  is  a  river  of  importance,  more  than 
half  a  mile  broad,  with  high  banks,  and  a  current 
so  swift  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  ferry  across. 
The  Betwa  is  the  most  important  river  in  Bundel- 
cunde, has  its  source  near  Bhopal,  and  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Jumna,  after  a  course  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty  miles.  The  people  of  Central 
India  regard  it  as  their  sacred  stream  ;  and  from 
Oorcha  to  Raicia  the  waters  are  very  pure.  The 
Ambramutty,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  is  a 
branch  of  the  Cavery,  with  which  it  unites  nearly 
forty  miles  northwest  of  Trichinopoly.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Ambramuttj^,  near  its  junction  with 
the  Cavery,  is  the  little  town  of  Cavoor,  contain- 
ing about  a  thousand  houses,  a  fort,  and  a  large 
temple.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  Indian  posses- 
H.  I.— 4 


50  Geographical  Divisions. 

sions  of  the  English,  having  been  in  their  hands 
since  1760. 

The  Cavery  is  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  south- 
ern India.  It  rises  among  the  Coorg  Hills  near 
£he  Malabar  coast,  four  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  flows  in  a  circuitous  course, 
mainly  southeast,  traversing  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  peninsula  ;  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  on  the  Coromandel  coast.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Trichinopoly  it  separates  into  several 
branches,  which  descend  in  distinct  falls  of  two 
and  three  hundred  feet,  and  enter  the  sea  by  nu- 
merous mouths,  in  the  province  of  Tanjore. 
Though  the  Cavery  is  four  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  long  it  is  navigable  only  for  small  boats. 
The  only  boats  used  are  queer-looking  circular 
baskets,  from  nine  to  fourteen  feet  in  diameter, 
and  covered  with  buffalo  leather.  In  these,  prod- 
uce is  readily  brought  down  stream;  but,  as  the 
force  of  the  current  renders  upward  navigation  im- 
possible, these  strange  little  vessels  are  taken  to 
pieces,  and  the  leather  carried  back  on  the  heads 
of  the  crew.  The  Falls  of  the  Tons  are  situate 
some  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Rewah,  near  the 
road  to  Allahabad.  The  river,  on  reaching  the 


The  Bombay  Islands.  53 

confines  of  the  plateau,  dashes  down  from  the 
height  of  four  hundred  feet  into  the  plain.  A  mag- 
nificent landscape  adds  to  the  beauty  of  this  superb 
cataract  —  the  only  one  of  any  importance  in 
Northern  India. 

Among  the  islands  found  on  the  coast  of  India, 
the  Bomba}^  Group,  as  it  is  called,  is  in  many  re- 
spects the  most  important.  This  group  is  com- 
posed of  about  a  dozen  islands,  of  which  Salsette  is 
the  largest,  and  Bombay  one  of  the  smallest ; 
though  from  its  commercial  rank  the  latter  has 
given  name  to  the  entire  group.  The  derivation 
of  the  name  is  from  Bomla,  one  of  the  appella- 
tives of  the  goddess  Mamba  Devi,  to  whom  this 
island  is  dedicated.  The  name  of  the  next  in  im- 
portance is  Elephanta,  famous  for  those  wonderful 
cave-temples,  over  the  origin  of  which  scholars  of 
two  continents  have  been  quarrelling  for  several 
generations.  The  island  is  parted  into  two  peaks, 
rounded  and  completely  covered  with  woods  up  to 
their  very  summits.  The  water  on  the  coast  is  so 
very  shallow  that  the  boatmen  have  to  wade  ashore, 
with  the  water  waist-high,  to  land  their  passengers, 
whom  they  carry  in  a  sort  of  impromptu  chair, 
formed  by  the  interweaving  of  two  pairs  of  stal- 


54  Geographical  Divisions. 

wart  arms.  Near  the  landing  is  a  colossal  stone 
elephant  which,  though  now  much  mutilated  and 
sunken  by  its  own  great  weight,  still  stands  con- 
spicuous on  the  shore.  It  was  from  this  huge 
sculptured  quadruped  that  the  little  island  re- 
ceived its  name,  bestowed  by  the  early  Portuguese 
settlers.  It  is  called  by  the  natives,  G-arapuri ; 
and  is  just  five  miles  from  Bombay.  The  names 
of  several  of  these  islands  are  Drave,  Bassein 
Versova,  and  Trombay,  besides  some  that  are 
smaller  and  of  little  importance.  On  the  opposite 
side  from  Bombay  is  Karanja,  its  mountains  rising 
in  the  form  of  a  camel's  back,  in  the  midst  of  a 
dense  vegetation  that  runs  riot  over  all  the  level 
portions  of  the  island  down  to  the  water's  edge. 
This  island  is  famous  for  a  Hindu  temple  which, 
though  only  about  two  centuries  old,  lays  claim  to 
extreme  antiquity,  and  is  an  object  of  supreme 
veneration  on  the  ground  of  having  been  erected 
on  the  site,  and  with  the  identical  remains  of  an 
ancient  Jain  temple  that  was  thrown  down  by 
some  of  the  hordes  of  Hyder  Ali.  But  beyond 
these  few  leading  facts,  little  seems  to  be  really  au- 
thenticated concerning  this  wonderful  island-tem- 
ple so  highly  venerated  by  the  credulous  people. 


Karanja  Island.  55 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  island,  the  vegetation 
is  of  a  very  peculiar  character,  being  composed  of 
gigantic  trees  standing  apart  from  each  other,  and 
appearing  to  spring  from  stony  ground,  quite  de- 
void of  brushwood  —  thus  furnishing  a  cool  shel- 
tered retreat  where  the  tired  pilgrim  may  walk  or 
recline  at  pleasure.  One  of  these  trees,  a  beautiful 
sal,  of  huge  proportions,  is  noted  throughout  the 
country,  and  regarded  also  with  religious  venera- 
tion for  its  very  peculiar  growth.  The  numerous 
branches  grow  straight  outwards  for  a  time,  and 
then,  by  reason  of  their  great  length,  bend  down- 
wards to  the  very  ground,  thus  forming  a  grand 
circular  dome,  perfectly  shaded,  within  which  a 
thousand  persons  may  readily  find  shelter.  Not 
far  off,  is  an  equally-wonderful  banian,  said  by  the 
priests  to  number  its  age  by  centuries,  five  or  six 
at  least.  The  original  trunk  has  entirely  disap- 
peared, and  in  its  place  has  been  erected  a  small 
temple,  thus  wholly  embowered  in  a  tangled  mass 
of  natural  columns,  that  in  turn  support  other 
branches  of  the  same  parent  stem  from  which  their 
own  existence  was  derived ;  and  constituting  a  shrine 
of  weird  but  wondrous  beauty. 

The   island   of  Salsette   has   for  its  chief  town 


56  Geographical  Divisions. 

Tannah,  situated  about  twenty  miles  from  Bom- 
bay. An  excellent  bridge,  with  both  railway  and 
carriage  road,  spans  the  water  at  this  point,  con- 
necting the  island  with  the  main  land.  Tannah 
was  one  of  the  earliest  settlements  of  the  Portu- 
guese, and  the  capital  of  their  colony  during  their 
palmy  days  in  India.  It  was  conquered  in  1737  by 
the  Mahrattas,  who  devastated  its  fair  precincts, 
and  left  it  almost  in  ruins.  It  came  into  possession 
of  the  English  about  thirty  years  later,  and  they 
have  since  held  it,  but  it  has  never  regained  its 
former  importance.  The  Bombay  Prison  is  a  well- 
regulated  penal  institution  located  here  ;  and  there 
are  confined  in  it  criminals  of  so  vast  a  number  of 
castes,  creeds,  languages  and  proclivities,  as  to  re- 
quire a  very  peculiar  discipline,  enabling  the  rulers 
to  preserve  order,  and  yet  avoid  interfering  with 
the  religious  prejudices  of  the  inmates.  For  the 
rest,  this  island  is  rich  in  memorials  of  antiquity, 
containing  two  groups  of  remarkable  Buddhist 
caves  at  Kenhari  and  Magatani,  and  several  superb 
Brahmin  caves  at  Jygeysir  and  Monpezir.  The 
island  is  connected  with  Bombay  by  a  long,  wide 
causeway  across  the  little  strait  that  separates  the 
two  islands.  Upon  the  bay  thus  formed,  are 


The  Strait  of  Ghora-Banda.  59 

located  lovely  country-seats  amid  groves  of  pict- 
uresque palms.  At  the  Portuguese  village  of 
Mahim,  there  is  a  large  convent  and  one  or  two 
Romish  churches.  This  was,  in  the  days  of  Port- 
uguese supremacy,  an  important  shipping  port,  but 
it  has  been  deposed  from  its  high  position  by  the 
rivalry  of  Bombay,  as  well  as  the  very  malarious 
character  of  the  climate.  At  the  northern  end  of 
the  island  a  superb  iron  viaduct  crosses  the  Strait 
of  Ghora-Bandar,  that  separates  Salsette  from 
Bassem,  enclosing  a  lovely  bay,  on  whose  smooth 
surface  is  dancing,  at  all  hours,  a  fleet  of  native 
boats,  fragile  and  picturesque  as  a  bevy  of  wild  fowl 
sporting  on  the  summer  lake.  This  point  commands 
an  extensive  prospect  of  grand  and  beautiful  scen- 
ery. On  one  side  are  wooded  banks  and  massive 
rocks  enclosing  the  blue  arms  of  the  majestic  sea, 
and  on  the  other  rises  a  long,  steep  promontory 
crowned  with  the  walls  of  the  old  Portuguese  city 
of  Bassei'n  and  its  lovely  bay.  Bassem  was  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  of  the  Lansitanian  colonies  ; 
and  the  remains  of  the  great  Albuquerque  *  lie  here 
under  a  marble  tomb  that  is  half  buried  beneath 
the  encroachments  of  creeping  plants  and  the  rank 

*  "  Albuquerque,  the  Great,  called  the  Portuguese  Mars,  was  born  near  Lis- 
bon, in  1452,  and  died  at  Goa  on    the  Malabar  coast,  December  16,  1515. 


60  Geographical  Divisions. 

tropic  growth  of  this  fertile  soil.  Within  the 
walled  city  there  remains  nothing  of  the  old 
grmdeur,  save  the  ruined  spires  of  a  few  churches; 
but  most  of  the  hills  in  the  vicinity  are  marked 
by  the  remains  of  castles,  forts  and  convents,  that 
were  once  a  beauty  and  a  joy,  but  alas  !  not  for- 
ever. Residing  in  the  little  villages  around  Bas- 
se'in,  there  are  quite  a  number  of  Portuguese 
staid,  matter-of-fact  villagers  of  the  olden  type, 
who  seem  to  have  stood  still  all  these  years,  while 
the  rest  of  the  world  was  moving  onward,  and 
who  live  here  in  their  quiet  nook,  probably  just  as 
did  their  ancestors  of  the  centuries  agone. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghly,  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Ganges,  is  the  great  island  of 
Sangor,  one  of  the  most  holy  places  of  the  Hindu. 
The  Hooghly  being  considered  the  true  mouth  of 
the  Ganges,  and  the  junction  of  this  sacred  stream 
with  the  ocean  being  at  Sangor,  great  sanctity  is 
attached  to  the  place.  An  annual  festival  is  held 
here  in  January,  attended  by  thousands  of  Hindus, 
some  of  whom  come  from  a  distance  of  five  or  six 
hundred  miles.  Crowds  of  people,  leaving  their 
boats,  erect  booths  or  tents  on  the  adjacent  sand- 
banks, the  oars  of  the  boats  being  set  up  to  sup- 
port the  tents  and  shops.  Here,  within  a  few 


PEASANTS    OF    THE    DOAB. 


61 


G-unga.  63 

days,  an  uninhabited  island  will  be  transformed 
into  a  large  arid  populous  city,  full  of  streets,  lanes 
and  bazaars ;  where  people  are  buying,  selling,  and 
practising  various  handicrafts  as  in  a  city.  But 
the  masses,  men,  \vomen  and  children,  are  most  of 
the  time  busy  bathing  in  the  water,  that  to  them 
represents  a  God,  worshipping  Gunga  by  prostra- 
tions and  salaams,  spreading  out  their  offerings  on 
the  shore,  for  the  goddess  to  take  when  the  tides 
rise,  and  daubing  their  heads  and  breasts  with  the 
mud  that  they  regard  as  a  panacea  for  sin  and 
suffering.  Formerly,  thousands  used  to  throw 
themselves  and  their  children  into  the  river  from 
this  island,  hoping  thereby  to  gain  the  favor  of 
their  gods  ;  but  this  is  no  longer  permitted  by  the 
British  Government,  and  during  the  festival,  an 
English  officer  with  fifty  Seapoy  soldiers  is  placed 
here  to  prevent  these  cruel  sacrifices.  A  few  dev- 
otees usually  reside  on  the  island,  and  contrive  for 
a  while  to  avoid  the  tigers.  The  pilgrims  are  sup- 
ported by  the  donations  of  boatmen,  who  believe 
their  own  safety  is  ensured  by  the  presence  of  these 
holy  men.  Besides  these,  the  island  is  occupied 
mainly  by  tigers. 

Another  great  island  is  Ceylon,  three  hundred 


64  Geographical  Divisions. 

miles  long  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  broad  at  the 
widest  part.  It  lies  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  south- 
east of  Madras,  with  mountain  ranges  towering  in 
the  centre,  and  beneath  them  spread  out  on  all 
sides,  are  plains  of  wondrous  beauty  and  fertility. 
The  highest  peaks  on  the  island  are  Pedrotalla- 
galla,  eight  thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
above  the  sea,  Adam's  Peak,  seven  thousand  four 
hundred  and  twenty  feet ;  and  the  Sanitarium  of 
Newera  Ellia,  six  thousand  two  hundred  and  ten 
feet ;  with  others,  which  will  be  mentioned  farther 
on. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MOUNTAIN   SYSTEMS. 

MOUNT  Dhawalageri,  twenty-eight  thousand 
one  hundred  and  seventy-nine  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  is  one  of  the  loftiest  peaks  of 
the  great  Himalayas,  and  was  for  many  years 
accredited  by  geographers  as  the  culminating  point 
of  our  earth.  But,  in  the  year  1854,  the  adjacent 
peak  of  Mount  Everest  was  ascertained  to  be 
twenty-nine  thousand  two  hundred  and  fort}'  feet 
above  the  sea,  or  nearly  eleven  hundred  feet 
higher  than  Mount  Dhawalageri ;  and  Mount 
Everest  has  enjoyed  the  honorable  distinction  of 
being  reckoned  the  highest  known  point  on  the 
globe.  It  is  doubtless  upon  the  ancient,  wide- 
spread reputation  of  Mount  Dhawalageri,  and  the 
H.I.-5  « 


66  Mountain  Systems. 

marvellous  stories  and  traditions  circulated  by  the 
Hindus  of  its  wondrous  height  that  the  Buddhists 
have  based  their  fiction  of  Mount  Phrd-su-ma-ru- 
rdt,  honestly  believed  by  them  to  be  the  grand 
centre  of  our  entire  system  of  worlds.  Of  its 
fabled  wonders  they  have  written  whole  volumes  ; 
and  at  its  base  they  locate  their  "  seven  hells,"  the 
unfortunate  occupants  of  which  sink  lower  and 
lower  in  sin  and  suffering,  just  in  proportion  to 
their  location.  The  "  seven  heavens  "  also,  accord- 
ing to  the  Buddhists,  are  located  around  the  sides 
of  this  "  great  central  mountain,"  each  rising 
higher  and  higher,  until  Nigban,  the  very  summum 
bonum  is  reached. 

Upon  the  Mussoorri  range  of  the  Himalayas  the 
English  have  quite  a  famous  botanic  garden.  The 
climate  here  is  not  warmer  than  that  of  Central 
Europe,  and  is  quite  as  healthful  and  agreeable. 
The  average  temperature  during  May  and  June, 
the  two  hottest  months,  is  about  sixty-six  degrees, 
and  on  the  very  warmest  day,  the  thermometer 
does  not  rise  above  eighty  in  the  shade.  During 
the  cool  season,  which  occurs  in  the  months  of 
December,  January  and  February,  the  average 
range  of  the  glass  is  about  forty-three ;  and  at 


Dharjeling,  the  Sanitarium.  69 

night,  for  several  consecutive  months,  it  falls  as 
low  as  thirty-two. 

On  the  Sik-kira  Hills,  near  the  Himalayas,  is  the 
English  Sanitarium  of  Dharjeling.  It  is  seven 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the 
climate  is  charmingly  salubrious,  in  contrast  with 
the  sultry  atmosphere  of  the  plains;,  the  thermome- 
ter rarely  rising  above  seventy,  even  in  the  warmest 
months.  From  the  summit,  the  snow-crowned 
Himalayas  are  plainly  visible  ;  and  the  scenery  all 
around  the  settlements  is  varied  and  beautiful, 
uniting  the  delights  of  two  zones,  the  lovely  tropic 
verdure,  and  the  salubrious  breezes  of  temperate 
latitudes.  The  distance  of  Dharjeling  from  Cal- 
cutta is  nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
part  of  which,  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of 
river-boats,  and  the  remainder  by  palanquin  over 
good  and  safe  roads,  with  the  occasional  help  of 
the  palkeegharee. 

Stretching  along  the  lower  chain  of  the  Hima- 
layas lies  a  region  of  peaty  swamp-lands,  known 
as  the  Tarai.  Various  mountain  springs,  filtering 
through  the  soil,  keep  it  always  moist ;  while  vast 
masses  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  swept  down 
by  the  rains  from  the  mountains,  fill  the  air  with 


70  Mountain  Systems. 

pestilential  vapors,  rendering  this  locality  wholly 
unfit  for  human  habitation.  Yet  there  is  a  sparse 
population  of  wretched,  cadaverous-looking  natives, 
who  earn  a  scanty  living  by  felling  and  sawing 
logs,  though  they  suffer  much  from  jungle  and  in- 
termittent fevers,  and  there  is  a  great  mortality 
among  them.  During  the  years  1875  and  1876 
two  English  officers,  accompanied  by  the  wife  of 
one  of  them,  paid  a  two  years'  visit  to  Dharjeling ; 
and  thence,  when  their  sojourn  at  the  Sanitarium 
was  concluded,  they  set  forth,  with  numerous 
attache's  and  attendants,  about  seventy  in  all,  upon 
an  impromptu  exploring  tour,  far  into  the  interior 
of  this  mountain  region.  This  novel  and  interest- 
ing trip  occupied  about  three  months'  time,  during 
which  they  succeeded  in  gaining  an  elevation  of 
about  eighteen  thousand  feet  above  the  seaboard 
before  turning  their  faces  homeward.  A  portion 
of  the  trip  was  accomplished  very  comfortably  on 
horseback  ;  but  as  the  way  grew  more  rugged  with 
the  upward  march,  the  ponies  became  valueless, 
and  the  gentlemen  of  the  party  had  to  continue 
their  route  on  foot,  though  for  the  lady  a  dandy- 
bareilly  was  improvised,  and  did  effective  service. 
But  after  a  while,  as  the  ascent  grew  still  more 


Dharjellng.  ~  71 

steep,  and  the  footing  more  uncertain,  even  the 
"  dandy  "  was  no  longer  available  ;  and  this  enter- 
prising lady  tourist  had  no  choice  left  her  but  to 
be  carried  forward  in  an  arm-chair  strapped  to  the 
back  of  the  stoutest  of  her  attendants. 

At  the  beginning,  when  the  three  travellers  left 
Calcutta  for  Dharjeling,  the  first  stage,  of  one 
'hundred  and  fifty  miles,  was  made  at  night  by  a 
railway  running  parallel  with  the  Ganges,  on  its 
left  bank.  At  dawn,  the  rail-car  was  exchanged 
for  a  steamboat ;  and  at  sunset  the  little  party  had 
reached  the  town  of  Caragola,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river.  The  second  night's  travel  was  made 
by  the  "  government  bullock  train,''  at  a  rate  of 
one  and  a  half  miles  per  hour ;  which,  proving  a 
somewhat  exhaustive  process  for  the  patience  of 
our  travellers,  the  government  conveyance  was  ex- 
changed for  a  palkeegharee,  a  native  vehicle  with 
closed  sides,  and  about  sufficient  space  to  accommo- 
date two  passengers  in  a  recumbent  posture,  while 
the  servants  and  luggage  are  bestowed  upon  the 
roof,  and  the  whole  is  drawn  by  two  stout  oxen. 
In  this  manner  they  journeyed  to  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains,  alighting  at  the  Terai,  which, 


72  Mountain  Systems. 

though  three  hundred  miles  from  Calcutta,  is  only 
three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

But,  from  this  point  the  ascent  grows  more 
abrupt.  Punkabaree,  the  first  station  on  the 
mountain,  is  eighteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea ; 
and  Kursiong,  only  six  miles  further,  is  three 
thousand  feet  higher.  Tea  of  excellent  quality  is 
very  extensively  cultivated  in  the  region  round 
Kursiong  ;  and  forest  trees  are  rapidly  disappear- 
ing, to  be  replaced  by  tea-shrubs,  thus  utilizing, 
but  greatly  diminishing  the  picturesque  beauty  of 
these  mountain  regions.  From  Kursiong,  after 
twenty  miles  over  a  broad,  smooth  road  winding 
round  the  hill  sides,  the  travellers  halted  before 
the  English  cantonments,  seven  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  Dharjeling  occupies  the  summit  of 
a  ridge,  from  which  descend  on  either  side  deep, 
fertile  valleys,  where  oranges,  bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  grow  spontaneously,  and  sugar-cane  is  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  ;  while  on  the  "  top,"  fires  and 
thick  clothing  are  needed  almost  the  year  round. 
Mount  Everest,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Himalayas, 
is  not  seen  from  Dharjeling,  but  Mount  Dhawala- 
ghiri,  twenty-eight  thousand  one  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  feet  in  height ;  Mount  Juuno,  twenty- 


INHABITANTS     OF    THE    ISLAND    OF    SALSETTE     NEAR    BOMBAY.    73 


Dharjeling.  75 

five  thousand  three  hundred  and  eleven  feet; 
Mount  Kubra,  twenty-four  thousand  and  fifteen; 
Donkia,  twenty-three  thousand  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  feet,  and  Pundeem,  twenty-two  thous- 
and two  hundred  and  seven  feet,  with  some 
seven  or  eight  others,  each  of  which  rises  more 
than  twenty-thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  are  all 
plainly  visible  from  the  military  sanitarium  of 
Dharjeling.  It  was  in  the  year  1835  that  the 
English  Government  first  projected  this  institution  ; 
and  the  Rajah  of  Sik-kim  was  induced,  in  consider- 
ation of  the  annual  payment  by  the  English  of 
three  hundred  pounds,  to  cede  to  them  a  small  tract 
of  land  sufficient  for  the  erection  of  extensive 
hospitals,  lodging-houses  for  invalids,  and  other 
buildings  needed  by  a  Sanitary  Commission.  After 
some  fifteen  years,  difficulties  arising  between  the 
contracting  parties,  culminating  at  length  into 
open  hostilities,  the  English  being  the  stronger 
side,  from  thenceforth  refused  to  pay  any  portion 
of  the  three  hundred  pounds  ;  at  the  same  time, 
laying  violent  hands  upon  a  much  larger  tract  of 
land,  for  the  erection  of  additional  sanitariums, 
barracks,  churches,  etc.,  for  which  no  compensation 
was  even  named.  In  this  case,  as  in  a  thousand 


76  Mountain  Systems. 

others,  where  the  strong  and  the  weak  war  against 
each  other,  might  was  made  to  usurp  the  place  of 
right,  and  the  Rajah  had  no  alternative  but  to  sub- 
mit to  the  gross  injustice  practised  on  him  by  a 
professedly  Christian  government.  Besides  the 
public  buildings  owned  by  the  government  in 
Dharjeling,  there  are  many  lovely  cottages  and 
elegant  villas  owned  by  officers  and  citizens  of 
Calcutta  and  elsewhere.  These  are  nearly  always 
occupied  by  the  families  or  friends  of  the  owners, 
in  constant  rotation,  one  set  going  as  another 
comes,  even  during  pleasant  weather ;  and  in  the 
hot  months,  when  everybody  leaves  Calcutta  who 
can  get  away,  these  mountain  residences  are  filled 
to  repletion.  The  climate  of  Dharjeling  has  been 
found  so  highly  beneficial  to  invalids,  when  re- 
sorted to  in  season,  that  the  number  of  visitors  is 
generally  limited  only  by  the  measure  of  accom- 
modations. The  natives  have  several  very  con- 
venient arrangements  for  conveying  the  sick  up 
and  down  the  mountains.  First  among  these  is 
the  dorlie,  a  covered  litter,  softly-cushioned,  mus- 
lin-curtained, and  easy  as  a  sick-room  cot.  It  is 
borne  by  "  bearers,"  like  a  palanquin,  without 
jolting  or  fatigue  to  the  invalid,  who  can  sit  or 


The  Bareilly -dandy.  77 

recline  as  most  agreeable  ;  and  unless  extremely 
ill,  derives  both  pleasure  and  benefit  from  this 
gentle  exercise.  Another  native  invention  is  the 
bareilly-dandy,  which  consists  of  a  reclining  cane- 
chair  suspended  by  straps  from  a  strong,  boat- 
shaped  wooden  frame,  that  terminates  in  a  pole  at 
each  end.  This  is  carried  by  four  "  bearers,"  who 
are  relieved  at  short  intervals.  The  "  dandy  "  is 
specially  suited  for  ascending  or  descending  moun- 
tains, in  which  case  it  is  desirable  for  the  "  team  " 
each  time  to  be  composed  of  two  tall  and  two 
short  men.  In  going  up,  the  short  ones,  of  course, 
are  "  to  the  fore,"  and  the  arrangement  is  reversed 
in  going  down. 

There  is  yet  another  ingenious  contrivance  for 
the  invalid  traveller,  less  used  than  the  others,  and 
only  brought  into  requisition  on  very  steep  accliv- 
ities, 01  for  ladies,  in  localities  where  it  would  be 
impossible  for  them  to  maintain  a  foothold.  Only 
the  strongest  and  most  trusty  bearers  are  employed 
for  this  variety  of  ton-yon,  and  their  wages  are 
more  than  double  the  amount  paid  to  the  ordinary 
"  bearer,"  since  both  the  fatigue  and  the  responsi- 
bility are  proportionately  augmented.  The  ton- 
Jon  is  merely  a  cane-chair  placed  on  the  back  of  a 


78  Mountain  Systems. 

stout  bearer  and  bound  by  means  of  strong  leather 
straps  around  his  arms  and  forehead,  while  he 
keeps  his  footing  and  plods  patiently  onward  by 
the  aid  of  a  trusty  staff. 

As  the  foreign  residents  at  Dharjeling  have  in- 
creased in  number,  native  villages  have  sprung  up 
all  around  the  settlement;  and  the  population,  that 
twenty -five  years  ago  was  estimated  at  only  five 
thousand,  now  exceeds  twenty  thousand.  Of 
these  some  two  thousand  are  Europeans  and  their 
descendants ;  and  the  remainder  are  mainly  Bhoo- 
tias  and  Lopchas,  with  a  very  small  admixture  of 
natives  from  other  portions  of  India  —  chiefly 
those  iii  the  employ  of  European  residents,  as 
servants. 

As  the  tourist  nears  Dharjeling,  he  begins  to 
imagine  himself  "  certainly  in  the  fashion,"  for 
every  part  of  the  road  is  crowded  with  ponies  arid 
pedestrians,  ox-carts  and  hackeries  drawn  b}^  buffa- 
loes, hauling  passengers  and  their  belongings, 
lighter  carriages  with  ladies  in  "  full  dress  "  on  the 
evening  drive,  officers  in  uniform,  with  toilettes, 
costumes  and  colors  in  every  possible  variety. 

The  Pur  Pandjal  is  a  lofty  chain  of  glaciers, 
forming  a  formidable  though  by  no  means  impass- 


A   CHILD    COMMITTED   TO   'iUJi   K1VER  JUNNA   BY   ITS   MOTHEK. 


Simla.  81 

able  barrier  between  the  burning  plains  of  the 
Purijaub  and  the  cool  valleys  of  Cashmere.  Dur- 
ing the  warm  months,  parties  of  native  traders 
often  take  this  route  between  Serinaghur  and 
Lodiana,  bringing  from  the  former  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  textile  fibre  from  which  the  famous 
Cashmere  shawls  are  made,  for  the  supply  of  the 
Lodiana  looms  ;  as  well  as  large  packages  of  the 
shawls  themselves,  which  find  a  ready  market 
among  the  native  Indian  Princes  and  Rajahs. 

Almost  buried  in  a  ravine  of  the  Himalayas,  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles  due  north  from  Delhi,  is 
Simla,  the  fashionable  resort  during  the  hot 
months  of  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  English 
residents  of  Calcutta.  In  itself  merely  a  large 
village,  Simla  is,  for  about  six  months  of  every 
year,  invested  with  the  important  position  of  Capi- 
tal of  British  India.  Here  the  Governor-general 
has  an  elegant  villa,  with  offices  and  dwellings  for 
his  staff  and  the  chief  functionaries  of  govern- 
ment ;  and  with  the  first  oppressive  days  of  the 
hot  season  the  hegira  commences.  The  whole 
concourse  of  the  tlite  naturally  follow  the  foot- 
steps of  the  court;  and  thus,  from  April  to 

October,  Calcutta,  "  City  of  Palaces,"  sinks  to  the 
H.  I— 6 


82  Mountain  Systems. 

insignificance  of  a  provincial  town.  Meanwhile, 
vice-regal  decrees  emanate  only  from  Simla,  the 
Official  Gazette  displays  the  name  of  the  new 
favorite  at  the  head  of  its  columns,  and  newspaper 
reporters  must  draw  from  this  little  moun- 
tain town  such  items  of  "  Court  News,"  and 
"  Personals  "  of  the  beau-monde  as  may  be  needed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  their  readers.  This 
semi-annual  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  is 
both  inconvenient  and  expensive,  though  of  late 
years  a  railroad  over  the  larger  portion  of  the 
route  has  brought  the  two  "  capitals  "  nearer  to- 
gether. Simla  has  a  first-class  English  hotel, 
where  rousing  fires,  a  plentiful  table,  and  good 
beds,  well  provided  with  snowy  sheets  and  thick 
blankets,  give  the  travellers  a  cheery  welcome. 

Kalka  is  a  pretty  village  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  one  of  the  lower  steps  to  the  ascent ; 
and  here,  before  the  railroad  to  the  summit  was 
completed,  tourists  had  of  necessity  to  stop,  in 
order  to  obtain  ponies  or  jampans  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  journey  to  Simla.  The  jampan  is 
another  Hindu  contrivance  belonging  especially  to 
the  Himalayas.  It  is  almost  identical  with  the 
"  dandy,"  except  that  the  former  is  provided  with 


Simla.  83 

a  sort  of  oil-skin  roof   as  a  protection  from  the 
sun. 

The  long  line  of  the  Sirmour  mountains,  all  cov- 
ered with  glaciers  and  thick  forests,  is  plainly  visi- 
ble before  reaching  Simla  and  the  celebrated  peak 
of  Jacko  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  little 
town.  Nevertheless,  at  this  point  are  attained 
only  the  lowest  steps  or  first  gradation  of  the 
gigantic  Himalayas,  whose  vast  system  of  snow- 
covered  peaks  extends  so  many  thousands  of  feet 
upwards  and  onwards.  From  here,  climate,  vege- 
tation, all  are  changed  ;  even  the  features  of  the 
people,  whose  small  eyes,  high  cheek-bones,  broad 
noses,  and  wide  mouths  proclaim  their  Mongul 
descent.  In  truth  this  is  no  longer  India,  though 
of  India.  It  is  plainly  annexed  territory,  and  its 
people  are  the  same  as  those  belonging  to  Thibet 
and  China  —  hardy  mountaineers,  called  by  the 
Hindus  Paharis,  the  term  being  applied  indiscrimi- 
nately to  all  mountaineers  without  regard  to  race. 
The  very  cottages  seem  to  have  been  transported 
from  a  distance,  and  the  villages  are  those  of  China 
or  the  mountains  of  Europe,  while  the  men  wear 
trousers  and  woollen  waistcoats  in  lieu  of  their 
flowing  tropic  robes,  and  some  have  felt  hats  in- 


84  Mountain  Systems. 

stead  of  muslin  turbans.  Palms  and  mangoes  dis- 
appear altogether,  and  their  places  are  usurped  by 
firs  and  plane-trees,  while  the  lovely-tinted  rho- 
dodendrons lavish  their  wealth  among  rocks  and 
ravines. 

Another  noted  mountain  town  is  Bhadrinalh, 
in  the  district  of  Gurhwal  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  Vishnu-gunga.  It  lies  in  a  valley  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains,  ten  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  while  the  peaks  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  town  tower  aloft  from  twenty-one  thousand 
to  twenty-three  thousand  feet.  Bhadrimith  is 
famous  for  a  temple  of  Vishnu  that  is  reputed  to 
be  very  ancient,  though  the  building  has  quite  a 
modern  look,  possibly  from  recent  improvements. 
Below  the  temple  is  a  tank  thirty  feet  square,  fed  by 
a  thermal  spring  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
subterranean  passage.  The  chief  object  of  wor- 
ship in  the  temple  is  an  idol  of  black  marble 
robed  in  gold  and  silver  brocade ;  and  the  ablu- 
tions performed  in  the  tank  are  supposed  to  be 
efficacious  in  washing  away  all  past  sin. 

For  nearly  six  months  of  every  year,  from 
November  to  April,  the  temple  is  closed  on  ac- 
count of  the  excessive  cold ;  but,  during  the 


Chirra  Punjee.  85 

remaining  portion  of  the  time,  it  is  the  resort  of 
numerous  pilgrims,  the  number  reaching  fifty 
thousand  at  the  celebration  of  the  Kumbh  Mela 
festival,  that  takes  place  every  twelfth  year  and  is 
attended  with  much  splendor  and  most  extrava- 
gant outlay. 

Chirra  Punjee  is  a  town  in  northeastern  India, 
situated  on  the  Cossya  Hills  at  a  height  of  four 
thousand  two  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
temperature  during  the  hot  season  is  full  twenty 
degrees  lower  than  the  plains  in  the  same  latitude, 
but  for  some  unascertained  reason  the  climate  has 
not  been  found  favorable  to  the  health  of  Euro- 
peans. There  are  valuable  mines  of  coal  and  iron  in 
this  region,  but  little  effort  has  been  made  to 
develop  their  wealth. 

The  Aravalis  range,  separating  from  the  great 
net-work  of  mountains  in  Central  India,  runs  in  a 
northerly  direction  through  Rajputana  as  far  as 
Delhi.  The  peaks  are  composed  mainly  of  granite 
resting  on  massive  beds  of  blue  slate,  while  the 
valleys  are  rich  in  many-tinted  quartz,  and  in 
laminated  slates  of  various  hues  from  gold  to  pur- 
ple. This  is  one  of  the  richest  of  all  the  mineral 
fields  of  India.  Besides  its  untold  wealth  of  gold, 


86  Mountain  Systems. 

silver,  lead,  tin,  copper,  carbuncles,  amethysts, 
chrysolites,  garnets,  emeralds  and  rock-crystal,  it 
contains  also,  black  and  colored  marbles,  gneiss 
and  sienite.  The  higher  portions  of  the  moun- 
tains are  inhabited  by  the  Pal  Bheels,  a  race  who, 
despite  their  present  degradation,  yet  retain  un- 
questionable evidences  of  a  former  civilization  far 
above  the  people  about  them. 

From  Ajmere,  some  of  the  finest  scenery  of  the 
Aravalis  is  visible  —  piled-up  rocks,  ravines  and 
mountains,  out  of  the  midst  of  which  rises  the 
town  with  its  far-famed  fortress  of  Teraghur  sur- 
rounded by  a  belt  of  verdure  like  an  oasis  in  a 
desert.  Sharp  peaks  shoot  upward  on  all  sides ; 
ravines  that  seem  unfathomable  make  the  head 
grow  dizzy  to  look  into  their  dreary  abyss;  giant 
cacti  are  all  aglow  with  their  rich  crimson  blooms  ; 
and  graceful  ferns  and  parasites  reflect  the  bright 
tropic  sun  in  rose-tinted  halos.  The  rocky  heights 
of  Teraghur  are  very  abrupt  and  the  ascent  is  dif- 
ficult ;  but  the  summit  commands  a  magnificent 
view  of  the  town,  and  of  all  the  surrounding 
scenery.  It  is  from  this  huge  rock,  on  which  is 
built  the  fortress  commanding  the  town,  that 
Ajmere  (Aji-mer,  "  Invincible  Mountain  ")  derives 


Naga  Pahar.  89 

its  name.  Near  Poshkur,  about  ten  miles  from 
Ajmere  is  the  equally  famous  Naga  Pahar,  "  Rock 
of  the  Serpent,"  likewise  associated  with  the  mem- 
ory of  Aja  Pal,  the  builder  of  the  fortress  of  Tera- 
ghur  ;  and  at  Naga  Pahar  may  still  be  seen  the 
ruins  of  his  ill-fated  castle. 

These  mountains  abound  in  springs,  and  for  this 
reason  they  have  from  time  immemorial  been  a 
favorite  resort  of  ascetics.  The  Brahmins  say 
that  the  great  Bhirtrari,  the  brother  of  King 
Vikramaditya,  lived  here  as  a  hermit  for  many 
years  at  the  shrine  of  Naga  Pahar  ;  and  the  marble 
slab  on  which  this  noted  anchorite  used  to  sleep  is 
still  shown  to  thousands  of  credulous  pilgrims 
who  come  annually  to  kiss  the  sacred  stone.  Just 
beyond  Peshkur,  between  the  two  parallel  moun- 
tain ranges,  is  a  long,  narrow  valley  almost  filled 
with  sand  which  is  piled  up  on  either  side  nearly 
to  the  mountain  tops,  leaving  only  a  narrow  uncer- 
tain path  in  the  middle  with  an  aspect  dreary  as  a 
desert  —  the  very  reverse  of  the  lovely  valley 
around  Ajmere. 

Between  Doudon  and  Jeypore  occur  a  series  of 
sandy  plains  with  no  sign  of  vegetation.  This 
sand  is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  salt  that 


90  Mountain  Systems. 

simply  by  washing  and  evaporation  excellent  salt 
is  obtained ;  and  so  extensive  are  the  plains  and 
so  rich  the  yield,  that  nearly  the  entire  community 
derive  their  support  from  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  salt,  to  the  total  neglect  of  agricultural 
pursuits. 

Among  the  Doungher  Mountains  is  Tintouni,  a 
town  of  note,  as  the  entrance  to  the  defiles  of  the 
mountains ;  tmd  also  as  the  abode  of  the  chief  of 
the  Thakours,  a  haughty  race  whose  character  and 
habits  take  one  back  to  the  old  feudal  times  with 
their  tyranny,  barbarisms  and  exactions  of  "black- 
mail "  tribute.  It  seems  odd  enough  to  find  thus, 
in  the  very  heart  of  Asia,  a  reproduction  of  Euro- 
pean customs  of  an  age  long  gone  by.  The  castle 
of  the  Thakoura  chief,  strongly  built  and  fortified, 
stands  on  a  commanding  eminence  with  a  quaint 
medley  of  terraces,  towers  and  pinnacles  over- 
looking the  precipice.  A  very  steep  declivity 
leads  to  the  gate  of  the  keep,  which  is  well  de- 
fended by  numerous  small  towers  and  iron-bound 
stakes ;  while  the  interior  would  seem  a  very 
transcript  of  the  old  feudal  fortress  of  half  a 
dozen  centuries  agone.  These  chiefs,  despite  their 
rapacious  propensities,  are,  as  a  rule,  models  of 


•     •'"••. 


Blackmail.  93 

serenity,  dignity  and  courtliness,  receiving  and  en- 
tertaining their  guests  with  a  princely  air  and  self- 
sustained  consciousness  of  birth  and  blood,  that 
one  not  "to  the  manner  born,"  would  find  it  im- 
possible to  imitate.  During  some  few  years  past 
the  English  Government  has  attempted  to  com- 
pel these  fierce  warriors  to  renounce  their  system 
of  brigandage ;  but  they  have  accomplished 
merely  a  modification.  "  Blackmail  "  is  levied  on 
every  caravan  as  heretofore ;  but  now  it  is  called 
"  tribute,"  not  plunder.  From  being  the  robber 
of  travellers,  the  chief  has  become  their  "  pro- 
tector," furnishing  guides  and  guards  for  a  hand- 
some "  consideration ;  "  and  instead  of  pillaging, 
he  "  taxes  "  them.  So  the  chief  gets  his  bonus, 
and  every  traveller  and  trader  has  to  "  pay  tithes 
of  all,"  but  the  "  Blackmail "  bears  a  different 
name  under  the  new  regime. 

Much  of  the  country  among  the  Dounghers  is 
indescribably  wild,  and  some  of  the  passes  are  ex- 
tremely difficult.  The  number  of  tigers  and  other 
wild  beasts  found  here  greatly  adds  to  the  danger 
of  travel,  and  human  thieves  and  depredators  are 
not  wanting.  But  the  scenery  is  so  grand  and  pict- 
uresque that  one  willingly  incurs  the  risk  to  enjoy 


94  Mountain  Systems. 

by  a  coup  d'ceil,  such  a  vision  of  superb  moun- 
tains and  fertile  valleys,  myriads  of  the  loveliest 
flowers  dotting  every  little  oasis,  and  whole  miles 
of  mountain  declivities  covered  with  grand  old 
forests  that  reckon  their  age  by  centuries. 

At  Kairwara,  the  English  Government  has 
established  an  out-post  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  Bheels  in  check.  The  garrison  is  composed 
entirely  of  native  soldiers,  commanded  by  some 
half  a  dozen  English  officers. 

The  defiles  here  gradually  become  wider,  and 
the  mountains  are  circular  and  less  lofty;  but  the 
summits  are  bare,  seeming  to  be  composed  mainl}- 
of  laminated  schist,  with  thick  veins  of  milky 
quartz,  and  are  not  at  all  adapted  to  vegetation. 

The  range  of  Indian  mountains  next  in  length 
to  the  Himalayas,  is  the  Vindhya,  which  crosses 
the  peninsula  from  east  to  west,  between  the 
twenty-third  and  twenty-fifth  parallels  of  north 
latitude,  and  in  length,  extending  from  74°  to  84° 
of  east  longitude,  following  very  nearly  the  valley 
of  the  river  Nerbudda.  The  highest  peaks  of 
this  range  are  about  twenty-five  hundred  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  while  in  some  portions 
they  do  not  exceed  seven  hundred  feet.  The 


The    Vindhya   Mountains.  97 

greater  part  of  the  land  south  of  the  Vindhyas,  as 
far  as  the  Gap  of  Coimbatore,  consists  of  elevated 
table-lauds  skirted  by  mountains,  which  toward 
the  coast  terminate  in  plains.  Here  and  there 
little  villages  meet  the  eye,  and  at  almost  every 
eligible  point  this  shrine-loving  people  have  erected 
something  or  other  to  memorialize  their  gods  and 
invite  the  offerings  and  adoration  of  every  passing 
traveller.  Zayats  are  numerous  along  the  high- 
ways. These  are  large,  covered  building's  with 
open  sides,  where  are  always  to  be  secured  by  the 
weary  traveller  a  cool  resting-place,  with  plenty  of 
fresh  water,  and  sometimes  other  conveniences  for 
as  long  a  time  as  he  may  desire.  But  though  the 
peaks  of  the  Vindhyas  proper  are  none  of  them 
very  lofty,  there  are  several  offshoots  that  extend 
through  the  district  of  Chittagong,  from  Assam  to 
Cape  Negrais,  the  peaks  of  which  vary  in  height 
from  three  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  These  mountains  are  the  abodes 
of  wild  tribes  whom  no  government  has  ever  been 
able  to  reduce  to  subjection,  though  Moguls, 
Afghans,  Tartars,  and  English  have  successively 
claimed  dominion  over  them. 

The  great  river  Chumbul  has  its  rise  on  the 
H.  I.— 7 


98  Mountain  Systems. 

northern  slope  of  the  Vindhyas,  at  an  elevation  of 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  whence  it 
flows  northward  and  north-eastward  before  unit- 
ing with  the  Jumnai 

It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Vindhyas,  among  the 
hills  adjacent  to  Cambay,  that  are  obtained  the 
celebrated  cornelians  known  as  "  Cambay  stones." 
They  are  found  thickly  embedded  in  the  small 
mounds  between  the  Bowa  Gore  and  Bowa  A  bbas, 
where  they  are  quarried  by  native  miners. 

The  Deccan,  south  of  the  Vindhyas,  is  bounded 
on  all  four  sides  by  lofty  mountain  ranges  known 
as  the  Ghauts,  and  distinguished  respectively  as 
the  Northern,  Southern,  Eastern  and  Western 
Ghauts.  This  name  is  given  only  by  Europeans 
to  the  mountains  themselves,  being  applied  by 
natives  to  the  passes,  the  word  Ghaut  meaning 
"an  opening  between  mountains."  The  Ghaut*, 
or  passes,  are  so  very  numerous  on  these  moun- 
tains, and  are  so  frequently  alluded  to  by  the 
natives,  that  those  not  very  familiar  with  the  ver- 
nacular of  the  country  have  misunderstood  the 
meaning  of  the  term  and  given  this  misnomer. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  a  Hindu,  on  hearing  a  Euro- 
pean express  the  desire  or  intention  of  "  visiting 


100  Mountain  Systems. 

the  Ghauts,"  to  reply :  "  It  will  be  pleasanter  to 
ascend  the  mountains.  The  Grhauts  (passes)  are 
not  so  cool  and  invigorating  as  the  tops  of  the 
hills." 

The  Eastern  Ghauts,  running  parallel  with  the 
coast  and  dividing  the  Carnatic  into  two  parts, 
are  a  range  of  highlands  terminating  in  craggy 
granite  peaks.  The  road  from  the  foot  is  hilly 
and  rough,  and  bullocks  instead  of  horses  are 
used  not  only  for  the  transportation  of  baggage, 
but  also  for  drawing  the  light  dandy  in  which  pas- 
sengers in  India  usually  travel  over  lengthy  roads. 
A  journey  of  about  two  days  over  granite  hills 
and  through  steep  passes  amid  masses  of  rock 
rolled  into  ravines,  and  the  stunted  mountain 
growth,  brings  the  traveller  to  the  elevated  plateau 
reaching  from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Ghauts, 
with  a  varying  elevation  of  from  two  to  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  This  table-land  is  a 
lovely,  rolling  country,  clothed  with  meadows, 
fields  and  villages,  looking  fair  and  fertile  com- 
pared with  the  burning  plains  below  the  moun- 
tains. The  difference  of  climate  between  the 
elevated  table-lands  of  India  and  the  sea-board  is 
very  marked.  The  sea-coast  of  the  Carnatic,  ex- 


The   Carnatic.  101 

tending  from  latitude  16°  to  Cape  Comorin,  is  the 
hottest  portion  of  India,  the  thermometer  often 
rising  to  130°  in  the  shade ;  while  on  the  moun- 
tains, in  the  same  latitude,  the  mornings  and  even- 
ings are  always  cool :  and  even  at  noon,  the  glass 
rarely  shows  a  greater  elevation  than  70°  in 
the  shade.  Fires  and  thick  clothing  are  needed 
for  three  or  four  months  of  the  year,  close- 
fitting  glass  windows  are  a  luxury,  and  the  pallor 
and  weariness  of  the  sultry  plains  are  soon  re- 
placed by  roseate  cheeks  and  a  bounding  pulse. 

The  ancient  Hindu  kingdom  of  Carnata,  of 
which  Mysore  was  the  capital,  occupies  this  beau- 
tiful table-land,  and  here  in  our  own  day,  is  Ban- 
galore, the  most  charming  and  healthful  of  all  the 
stations  of  Southern  India  occupied  by  the  British 
Government.  Westward  from  Bangalore,  the 
road  runs  through  a  hilly  country  well  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  grain. 

A  little  to  the  south  of  Mysore,  a  steep  hill  of  a 
thousand  feet  high  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain. 
Its  summit  supplies  a  magnificent  natural  observa- 
tory, whence  may  be  enjoyed  a  view  of  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  scenery  of  Southern  India,  over 
which  the  cloud-capped  mountains  in  the  distance 


A  Sacred  Hill.  103 

seem  to  be  standing  sentinel.  This  hill  is  noted 
among  the  Hindus  as  the  site  of  two  very  famous 
temples,  to  which  thousands  of  pilgrims  annually 
resort  ;  and  also,  as  the  spot  whence  a  colossal  bull, 
an  object  of  supreme  reverence  among  the  Hindus, 
was  cut  from  the  solid  rock.  There  is  another  of 
these  sacred  mountains  near  Wandiwash  —  a  tall, 
rugged  granite  mountain  peak,  rising  abruptly 
from  the  plain,  some  two  miles  from  the  town. 
The  ascent  is  by  steps  cut  into  the  solid  rock,  and 
the  summit  is  crowned  by  seven  small  temples 
dedicated  to  the  elephant-headed  Ganesha.  The 
architecture  of  the  shrines  is  beautiful  and  ingen- 
ious, resting  at  different  elevations,  partly  on  pil- 
lars of  rock  and  partly  on  levelled  portions  of  the 
peak.  In  the  rock  have  been  hewn  also  large 
hollow  cavities  for  offerings,  where  are  deposited 
gifts  of  oil  and  fruits,  brought  by  the  thousands 
of  pilgrims  who  flock  annually  to  the  festival  held 
at  this  famous  spot.  These  offerings  are  carried 
off  by  the  Brahmins,  who  dispose  of  them  as  prox- 
ies for  the  idols. 

Every  morning  a  Brahmin  ascends  to  this  moun- 
tain temple  to  perform  the  daily  worship ;  and  at 
evening  a  religious  ascetic  purchases  a  degree  of 


104  Mountain  System*. 

merit,  by  mounting  the  steep  ascent  to  light  a 
lamp  before  the  shrine. 

In  the  prospect  from  the  summit  the  great 
temples  of  Conjeveram,  thirty  miles  away,  are 
plainly  visible ;  and  all  around  the  craggy  hills, 
scattered  here  and  there  over  the  plain,  are  towns 
and  villages  ;  the  houses  embowered  in  trees,  and 
their  little  gardens  or  fields  spread  out  before 
them,  gleaming  brightly  in  the  tropic  sunshine. 

Forming  a  connecting  link  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts,  as  the}7  approach  the  lower 
end  of  the  peninsula,  are  the  celebrated  "  Neil- 
gherry  Hills,"  with  a  base  of  two  hundred  miles 
in  circumference.  A  dense  jungle,  infested  with 
ferocious  beasts  of  prey,  and  the  home  of  noxious 
reptiles,  stretches  out  on  every  side  of  the  "  Hills," 
as  if  to  guard  the  entrance  to  the  Paradise  above. 

These  "  Hills,"  which  are  really  mountains, 
derive  their  name  from  two  Hindustanee  words, 
w7a,  "  blue,"  and  giri,  "  mountain."  Towering 
above  all  the  other  mountains  south  of  the  Hima- 
layas their  summits  are  seen  always  clothed  in  the 
azure  of  the  clouds,  and  hence  received  their  name, 
Niligiri,  ("  Blue  Mountains,")  which  the  English 
have  gradually  changed  to  "  Neilgherry,"  affixing 


C^VES    OF    KENEIARJ, 


106  Mountain  Systems. 

"  Hills  "  to  the  name.  Ascending  by  the  Seegoor 
Pass,  the  delighted  tourist  finds  himself  not  on  a 
mountain  peak,  barren  and  cheerless,  but  on  an 
elevated  table-land,  broken  into  ridges,  hills  and 
valleys,  at  a  varying  altitude  of  from  six  to  seven 
thousand  feet;  whilst  the  highest  peak,  Mount 
Dodabetta,  loses  itself  in  the  clouds  almost  nine 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  public 
road  to  the  summit  commences  at  Seegoor,  at  the 
base  of  the  "  Hills,"  and  passing  awhile  along  the 
declivity,  turns  in  zigzag  route  up  the  face  of  the 
mountain  till  it  reaches  a  ravine ;  then,  turning 
aside,  continues  its  upward  course,  and  so  on  to 
the  top,  where  the  queenly  Ootacamund,  this 
beautiful  English  city  of  the  mountains,  sits 
enthroned  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Here,  only  four  or  five  hours'  ride  from  the 
intense  heat  of  the  torrid  zone,  are  found  invigor- 
ating breezes,  mornings  and  evenings  delightfully 
cool,  and  many  of  the  trees  and  plants  of  temper- 
ate latitudes.  The  vertical  sun  still  manifests  its 
power  at  noon-day,  but  in  the  shade  the  glass 
seldom  rises  as  high  as  seventy  in  the  warmest 
weather,  and  there  is  nearly  always  a  refreshing 
breeze.  In  the  winter  months  a  thin  coat  of  ice  is 


Ootaoamund.  107 

often  found  upon  the  ponds  at  early  morning, 
glass  windows,  in  lieu  of  Venetian  blinds,  are  a 
necessity  ;  and  a  bright  wood-fire  on  the  hearth, 
with  andirons,  tongs  and  bellows  —  articles  un- 
heard of  in  Calcutta  —  are  in  great  repute  at 
Ootacamund,  where  one  sleeps  under  blankets,  and 
gladly  resigns  straw  matting  for  woollen  carpets 
and  Turkish  rugs. 

The  English  had  been  for  years  in  possession  of 
Coimbatore  and  Mysore,  without  a  suspicion  of 
the  lovely,  health-restoring  retreat  that  lay  upon 
the  tops  of  these  "  Blue  Mountains ; "  and  the 
discovery  was  at  last  the  result  of  a  fortunate  acci- 
dent. Sometime  about  the  year  1830,  it  having 
been  ascertained  that  tobacco  was  smuggled  from 
the  district  of  Coimbatore  to  the  western  coast, 
the  existence  of  a  path  across  the  mountains  was 
almost  an  assured  fact ;  and  two  revenue  officers 
set  forth  in  pursuit  of  the  smugglers,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  tracking  them  by  a  steep  and  rugged 
path  to  the  summit.  Here,  outspread  before  their 
astonished  gaze,  lay  a  land  of  fairy  beauty  whose 
invigorating  atmosphere,  fertile  valleys,  cultivated 
fields,  undulating  pastures  and  Tich  woodlands 
seemed  to  belong  to  a  very  Eden,  compared  with 


108  Mountain  Systems. 

the  burning  plains  they  had  so  recently  left.  A 
settlement  was  at  once  begun  —  the  nucleus  about 
which  has  been  gathered  the  present  beautiful 
town.  This  contains  now  about  five  hundred 
English  residences,  several  excellent  roads  for  car- 
riage drives,  and  numerous  bridle-paths  for  eques- 
trian exercises;  while  cool  breezes  and  the  invigor- 
ating atmosphere  tempt  the  exiled  Englishman  to 
the  almost-forgotten  walking-feats  of  his  native 
land.  Some  few  European  families  reside  here  all 
the  year  round  ;  but  to  the  majority,  it  is  merely  a 
summer  resort. 

Another  peak  of  the  Neilgherries  is  Mount 
Kartery,  six  thousand  feet  high,  which  boasts  of 
that  great  rarity  in  India,  a  lovely  little  waterfall. 
It  is  surrounded  by  picturesque  scenery,  and  the 
hill-sides  are  nearly  covered  with  coffee  planta- 
tions. 

Mount  Sispara  is  the  summit  of  the  pass  to  the 
western  coast  of  India.  Beyond  its  huge  but- 
tresses of  granite  it  is  clothed  in  deep,  dense, 
unbroken  forest,  the  home  only  of  wild  elephants 
and  buffaloes,  ferocious  tigers  and  leopards,  jackals, 
monkeys,  and  hosts  of  wild  and  beautiful  birds 


A.   German  Mission.  Ill 

that  rove  here  in  pristine  security,  unawed  by  the 
encroachments  of  human  foes . 

The  Kay  tee-House,  four  miles  from  Ootacamund, 
was  built  by  Lord  Elphinstone  when  Governor- 
general  of  India,  as  a  place  of  elegant  retirement, 
entirely  away  from  European  society. 

On  his  return  to  England,  it  passed  into  other 
hands  ;  and  of  late  years  has  become  the  seat  of 
the  German  Mission  to  the  Badagas.  The  library 
and  ball-room,  despoiled  of  their  costly  belong- 
ings, have  been  converted  into  a  neat  and  com- 
modious chapel ;  while  other  portions  of  the 
stately  mansion  furnish  homes  for  the  missionaries, 
school-rooms  for  natives,  etc. 

Distant  twelve  miles  from  Kaytee  Pass,  and  at 
an  altitude  of  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  Canoor  with  a  climate  milder  by 
several  degrees  than  that  of  Ootacamund,  and  for 
this  reason  preferred  by  those  who  desire  a  change 
less  sudden. 

These  mountains  perform  a  most  important  part 
in  the  physical  economy  of  Southern  India,  con- 
densing into  rain  the  watery  vapors  borne  upon 
the  two  periodical  winds,  called  "  monsoons,  "  from 
the  seas  of  Arabia  and  Bengal ;  and  sending  the 


112  Mountain  Systems. 

genial  streams  to  cool  and  refresh  the  thirsty 
plains.  Yet  still  more  important  is  their  loving 
mission  from  the  merciful  Father  of  all,  in  provid- 
ing a  health-retreat,  so  near  at  hand,  and  so  easily 
available  to  the  weary  invalids  who,  far  from  their 
native  land,  languish  and  faint  beneath  the  sultry 
heat  of  India's  fervid  plains. 


H.  I  — 


CHAPTER  III. 

POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 

SINCE  August  2d,  1858,  all  the  territories 
heretofore  under  the  control  of  the  British 
East  India  Company  have  been  vested  in  the 
Crown,  in  the  name  of  which  all  authority  is  exer- 
cised. The  vast  region  known  as  British  India, 
includes  all  the  British  colonies  in  India  ;  and  the 
native  states  that  are,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
controlled  by  the  English  Government.  It.  is 
divided  into  ten  political  districts,  each  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  Lieutenant-governor  or  Commis- 
sioner; but  subject  to  the  authority  vested  in  the 
Governor-general,  who  acts  under  the  orders  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  India,  and  he  also  appoints 
the  various  Lieutenant-governors  and  Commis- 
sioners for  the  several  Presidencies  and  Provinces. 

115 


116  Political  Divisions. 

The  Provinces  of  Hyderabad,  Mysore,  and  Coorg, 
are  under  the  direct  administration  of  the  Gover- 
nor-general. These  cover  an  area  of  forty-seven 
thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-one  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  six  million  three  hundred  and 
eighty -nine  thousand  seven  hundred  and  ninety- 
two.  The  others  are  governed  by  the  following 
functionaries :  Lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal,  two 
hundred  and  thirty-nine  thousand  five  hundred 
and  ninety-one  square  miles,  population  thirty-five 
million  nine  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
two  hundred  and  seventy  four ;  Lieutenant-gover- 
nor of  Northwest  Provinces,  eighty-three  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  square  miles,  popu- 
lation thirty  million  eighty-six  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  ninety-eight;  Lieutenant-governor  of 
the  Punjaub,  one  hundred  and  two  thousand  and 
one  square  miles,  population  seventeen  million 
five  hundred  and  ninety-six  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  two;  Chief-commissioner  of  Oudh, 
twenty-four  thousand  and  sixty  square  miles,  popu- 
lation eleven  million  two  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty-seven;  Chief- 
commissioner  of  Central  Provinces,  eighty-four 
thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  square  miles, 


Area  and  Population.  117 

population  seven  million  nine  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  thousand  four  hundred  and  eleven  ;  Chief- 
commissioner  of  British  Burmah,  ninety-eight 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-nine  square 
miles,  population  two  million  four  hundred  and 
sixty-three  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty-four  ; 
Governor  of  Madras,  one  hundred  and  forty-one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty-six  square 
miles,  population  twenty-six  million  five  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  thousand  and  fifty-two ;  Governor 
of  Bombay,  eighty-seven  thousand  six  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  square  miles,  population  eleven 
million  ninety-three  thousand  five  hundred  and 
twelve  ;  Commissioner  of  Scinde,  fifty-four  thous- 
and four  hundred  and  three  square  miles,  popula- 
tion one  million  seven  hundred  and  ninety-five 
thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety-four;  making  the 
total  of  British  possessions  in  India  and  Burmah 
nine  hundred  and  sixty-three  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  square  miles,  population 
one  hundred  and  fifty-one  million  one  hundred  and 
forty-six  thousand  four  hundred  and  twenty-six ; 
which,  with  the  sixty  or  seventy  native  states 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain,  will  make 
an  area  for  all  India  of  not  less  than  one  million 


118  Political  Divisions. 

two  hundred  thousand  square  miles,  with  a  total 
population  of  fully  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
millions. 

Of  all  these  states  and  provinces  the  three  Pres- 
idencies of  Bengal,  Madras  and  Bombay  are  best 
known  to  Europeans,  and  really  possess  most  in- 
terest to  the  English-reading  public.  Bengal,  the 
largest  of  the  three  settled  by  the  English,  is 
divided  into  regulation  and  non-regulation  districts. 
The  regulation  districts  extend  over  the  low,  fer- 
tile, densely-populated  basin  of  the  Ganges,  and 
are  subject  to  a  strict  and  systematic  official  admin- 
istration. They  include  Bengal  proper,  the  native 
province  of  Behar,  and  the  maritime  districts  of 
Orissa.  The  wilder  out-lying  countries  are  com- 
prised in  the  non-regulation  districts ;  which  con- 
sist of  the  hill  region  of  Orissa,  the  territory  south 
of  Behar,  called  the  Southwest  Frontier,  and  the 
great  country  of  Assam,  through  which  flow  the 
Brahmapootra  and  its  tributaries.  Here  civiliza- 
tion is  far  less  advanced  than  in  the  regulation 
districts,  and  the  government  is  comparatively  in- 
formal. The  climate  of  Bengal  is  extremely  warm, 
and,  to  Europeans,  unhealthy  unless  they,  at  the 
occurrence  of  each  hot  season,  resort  to  some  of 


Native  Products.  119 

the  Sanitariums  among  the  hills.  The  soil  is  allu- 
vial and  consists  of  a  rich  black  mould  resting 
upon  a  sandy  clay.  There  is  no  substance  so 
coarse  as  gravel  to  be  found  in  the  great  delta,  nor 
within  four  hundred  miles  of  the  coast.  The  val- 
ley of  the  Ganges  is  noted  for  its  fertility  ;  and  the 
productive  power  of  its  lands  is  renewed,  like 
those  of  Egypt,  without  expense  to  the  cultivator, 
by  the  annual  river  deposits.  The  methods  of 
agri culture  are  extremely  primitive,  the  natives 
knowing  almost  nothing  of  husbandry,  and  their 
implements  being  of  the  very  simplest  and  rudest 
sort.  Each  ryot  or  native  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
occupies  usually  about  six  acres  of  land,  and  sel- 
dom more  than  twenty-four.  Rice  is  the  leading 
cereal,  and  an  important  article  of  export.  Wheat, 
barley,  millet,  and  maize  are  also  raised  on  the 
higher  lands,  with  cotton,  sugar,  opium,  indigo 
and  tobacco.  The  indigo  produced  in  Bengal 
alone,  amounts  to  five-sixths  of  the  entire  quantity 
made  in  the  world.  The  growth  of  coffee  has 
been  successfully  introduced  of  late  years,  espec- 
ially in  Assam,  where  large  tracts  are  devoted  to 
the  cultivation  of  tea  and  coffee.  The  poppv  is 
grown  chiefly  in  Behar,  the  opium  being  manu- 


120  Political  Divisions. 

factured  at  Patiia,  and  known  in  commerce  as 
Patna  opium.  No  one  is  permitted  to  engage  in 
the  opium  business  except  on  account  of  the 
government,  which  makes  advances  to  the  cultiva- 
tors, and  purchases  the  whole  crop  from  them  at 
an  established  price  —  usually  at  less  than  one 
dollar  per  pound  —  and  sells  it  for  exportation 
from  Calcutta  to  China,  at  an  enormous  profit. 
The  chief  sources  of  revenue  to  the  government 
are  from  the  land-tax  and  the  opium  monopoly. 
The  commerce  of  Bengal  is  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain  ;  and  the  exports  consist  of  cotton,  rice, 
indigo,  silk  and  saltpetre.  Railways,  which  are 
rapidly  multiplying,  have  greatly  facilitated  inter- 
nal trade,  since  their  introduction  in  1857.  In 
1859  there  were,  in  the  whole  of  Bengal,  only 
one  hundred  and  forty-two  miles  of  railway  open 
to  the  public,  and  there  are  now  about  two  thous- 
and miles.  The  East  India  line,  the  grand  trunk 
route  to  Delhi  and  the  highlands  of  Northern 
India,  traverses  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  from 
Calcutta  upward.  Calcutta,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  Anglo-Indian  Empire,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  one  million.  The  cities  of  Bengal 
next  in  rank,  are  Patna,  Moorshedabad,  Dacca, 


The  East  India   Company.  123 

and  Burdwan.  The  population  of  the  Bengal 
District  is  composed  mainly  of  native  Hindus,  and 
the  Mohammedan  descendants  of  the  Moguls,  the 
former  being  as  four  to  one  of  the  latter. 

It  was  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  English  East  India  Company  estab- 
lished their  first  trading  factories  in  Bengal,  then 
governed  by  a  Viceroy  of  the  Mogul  Emperor  of 
Hindustan.  Their  settlements  were  small,  and 
even  this  limited  territory  they  held  as  tenants 
under  native  rulers.  In  1746,  the  war  between 
England  and  France  extended  to  Southern  India, 
whence,  for  the  succeeding  ten  years,  England  was 
constantly  making  accessions  of  valuable  territory, 
as  well  as  increasing  her  military  force  ;  so  that 
when,  in  1756,  troubles  with  the  native  rulers  arose 
the  English  were  prepared  to  cope  with  their 
Indian  foes.  In  the  famous  battle  of  Plassey,  that 
occurred  on  June  23,  1757,  Lord  Clive  defeated 
the  Nawaub  of  Nazim,  with  great  loss,  compelling 
the  notorious  Nawaub,  who  was  no  other  than  the 
cruel  Suraj-al-Dowlah,  of  "  Black  Hole  "  notoriety, 
to  fly  from  the  field. 

This  victory  established  the  ascendency  of  the 
English  in  India,  giving  them  a  prestige  that  re- 


124  Political  Divisions. 

mains  to  the  present  day.  This  was  the  tide  that, 
taken  at  the  flood,  led  to  fortune  for  the  English. 
How  strangely  the  French  have  missed  their 
opportunity  in  India  again  and  again.  Chander- 
nagore,  beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Hooghly,  only  a  few  miles  from  Calcutta,  in 
1740,  eclipsed  that  city,  and  governed  the  trade  of 
Bengal.  To-da}r  it  is  a  miserable  village,  its  streets 
invaded  by  water  and  by  rank  weeds,  its  bazaars 
without  trade,  and  its  harbor  destitute  of  shipping 
—  a  reproach  to  a  great  nation,  and  a  grief  to  all 
who  venerate  la  belle  France  !  A  last  opportunity 
of  retrieving  the  fortunes  of  the  desolated  city 
occurred  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  when  the 
Delhi  railway  was  being  laid  out,  and  it  was  pro- 
posed to  have  it  pass  through  Chandernagore,  and 
to  convert  the  ancient  French  town  into  a  sort  of 
out-post  of  the  Indian  capital.  Vacillation  and  need- 
less delays  thwarted  the  plan  ;  and  the  opportunity 
was  lost,  not  to  return,  at  least  in  this  generation. 
The  river  Hooghly  is  one  of  the  many  streams 
by  which  the  Ganges  empties  its  waters  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  is  esteemed  the  most  sacred  of 
its  mouths.  Just  where  the  Ganges  meets  the  sea, 
is  the  island  of  Sangor  —  Grunga-Sagor  the  Indians 


The  Island  of  Sangor.  125 

call  it ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
islands  on  the  coast  —  famous  for  the  human  sacri- 
fices that  used  to  be  there  offered  to  the  goddess 
Gunga.  But  these  are  now  prevented  by  the 
action  of  the  British  Government,  who,  during  the 
annual  festival,  keep  soldiers  on  guard  to  prevent 
the  perpetuation  of  such  cruelties.  Before  reach- 
ing Sangor,  vessels  bound  for  Calcutta  are  boarded 
by  pilots,  who  carefully  guide  the  vessels  by  an  un- 
seen channel,  through  hidden  shoals,  toward  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  yet  at  a  distance.  These 
shoals  of  sand  and  mud,  known  as  the  "  Sand- 
heads,"  and  caused  by  the  constant  accumulations 
of  sand  at  the  mouth,  make  the  passage  replete 
with  danger,  which  is  increased  by  the  total 
absence  of  landmarks.  But  an  efficient  pilot  ser- 
vice, well  sustained  by  the  English  Government, 
prevents  the  occurrence  of  frequent  accidents. 
Calcutta  lies  a  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth,  and 
between  the  city  and  the  island  of  Sangor  is  a 
low,  jungly  tract  of  land,  intersected  by  creeks  and 
streams,  and  known  as  the  "  Sunderbunds."  This 
was  once  inhabited  and  cultivated  by  a  rural  popu- 
lation, but  was  desolated,  first  by  wars,  and  later 
by  the  incursions  of  the  river,  till  now  it  is  only 


126  Political  Divisions. 

the  home  of  wild  beasts,  and  the  abode  of  noxious 
reptiles. 

When  the  "  Sunderbunds  "  and  floating  lights 
have  been  passed,  the  shores  grow  perceptibly 
nearer,  allowing  both  banks  to  be  seen,  but  the 
river  is  still  more  than  two  miles  wide,  and  rolls 
on  with  a  wonderful  volume  and  swiftness  toward 
the  sea.  a  turbid  yellow  current,  loaded  with  allu- 
vial matter  from  the  uplands.  It  has  been  said, 
that  were  two  thousand  ships,  each  bearing  fifteen 
hundred  tons  of  soil,  to  sail  down  every  day  in  the 
year,  they  could  not  carry  as  much  solid  matter 
as  is  borne  to  the  ocean  in  a  single  day  by  the 
Ganges.  The  stream  still  narrowing,  objects  of 
interest  begin  to  multiply.  The  banks  are  no 
longer  jungly  wastes,  but  scattered  cottages,  em- 
bowered in  palms,  tamarinds,  and  other  tropical 
growth,  with  fishing  villages  here  and  there,  give 
life  and  beauty  to  the  scene.  The  exquisite  green- 
ness of  the  rice-fields,  the  waving  luxuriance  of  the 
sugar-cane,  and  all  the  graceful  beauty  of  vegeta- 
ble life,  so  characteristic  of  "  the  lands  of  the 
Sun,"  lend  their  charm  to  the  view ;  and  pres- 
ently Gloucester,  with  its  European  residences, 
comes  in  sight,  and  the  familiar  sounds  of  com- 


Cherinyhee.  127 

merce  and  the  hum  of  machinery  fall  on  the  ear. 
A  hundred  miles  above  the  island  of  Sangor,  a 
bend  in  the  river,  now  but  a  mile  wide,  opens  to 
view  "  Garden  Reach,"  a  suburb  of  the  great 
"  City  of  Palaces,"  with  its  superb  array  of  villas 
and  country-seats,  in  which  luxury  and  refinement 
are  everywhere  displayed,  combined  with  all  the 
wondrous  floral  wealth  of  that  clime.  As  one  ap- 
proaches the  city,  at  every  step  are  seen  splendid 
European  mansions  adorned  with  oriental  grandeur, 
and  surrounded  by  smooth  lawns  very  English  in 
look,  but  dotted  with  clumps  of  the  brightest  and 
gayest  of  tropical  flowers ;  native  budyerows  and 
dinyies  ply  on  the  smooth  waters,  and  English  steam- 
boats puff  up  and  down,  bearing  crowds  of  passen- 
gers, of  such  diversified  features,  complexion  and 
attire,  as  fairly  to  bewilder  the  unaccustomed  eye. 
A  little  farther  advance  brings  into  view  the  Fort 
and  government  buildings  of  the  Cheringhee 
suburb ;  lofty  chimneys  of  gas-works  and  factories 
rise  before  the  eye,  and  the  increasing  din  of  city 
life,  the  hum  of  voices  and  the  throng  of  vehicles, 
proclaim  the  presence  of  a  great  and  busy  city. 
Formerly,  numerous  corpses  were  to  be  seen 
floating  down  the  stream,  followed  by  birds  of 


128  Political  Divisions. 

prey;  but  this  ghastly  and  unwholesome  sight  is 
no  longer  permitted  by  the  English  authorities, 
who  forbid  the  throwing  of  bodies  into  the  stream, 
and  the  laying  of  the  sick  upon  its  banks,  within 
the  precincts  of  the  city. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  a  short  distance 
above  the  city,  are  the  magnificent  Botanical 
Gardens,  the  gift  of  the  famous  Hooker  to  the 
city  of  Calcutta.  This  is  believed  to  be  the 
largest  and  finest  botanical  collection  in  existence, 
embracing  the  most  wonderful  varieties  from  all 
quarters  of  the  world  ;  and  all  planted,  not  in 
conservatories,  under  glass  covers,  but  in  the  open 
air,  under  the  gorgeous  sunlight  of  that  unchanging 
clime.  Among  the  most  remarkable  specimens, 
are  a  Baobab  of  Senegal,  the  trunk  of  which  is 
thirty  feet  in  circumference  ;  and  an  Indian  Banian 
which,  with  its  numerous  branches,  is  sufficient  to 
shelter  a  thousand  people. 

The  city  of  Calcutta  stretches  along  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Hooghly,  or  Bagirathy,  as  it  is  called 
by  the  natives,  for  a  distance  of  six  miles  above 
the  fort ;  a  great,  wealthy,  prosperous  city,  that 
owes  its  greatness  entirely  to  the  supremacy  and 
enterprise  of  the  English.  When  it  was  granted 


Calcutta.  129 

to  them  in  1717,  it  consisted  of  three  small 
villages  of  mud-huts,  called  Govindpore ;  and  in 
1756  even  these  wretched  grants  were  withdrawn, 
and  the  English  were  expelled  from  Bengal  by  its 
nizam  ;  now  it  is  a  "  city  of  palaces,"  of  which  the 
despised  English  are  the  lords  paramount;  and 
scores  of  the  descendants  of  such  petty  tyrants  as 
Suraj-al-Dowlah,  are  glad  to  eat  the  bread  from 
the  coffers  of  the  English  treasury.  Fort  William, 
the  most  celebrated  and  extensive  foreign  fortress 
in  India,  was  begun  in  1757,  after  the  battle  of 
Plassey,  and  is  deemed  almost  impregnable.  The 
works  are  low  and  octagonal  in  outline,  three  sides 
facing  the  Hooghly.  The  citadel  mounts  six 
hundred  and  nineteen  guns  ;  and  a  garrison  of  one 
thousand  troops  are  needed  to  defend  it.  The 
Government  House,  the  palace  of  the  Governor- 
general  or  Viceroy,  is  a  superb  structure  of  mas- 
sive proportions,  consisting  of  a  large  central 
building  surrounded  by  four  extensive  wings  and 
crowned  by  a  magnificent  dome.  This  occupies  a 
conspicuous  position  in  the  esplanades  fronting  a 
park  called  Eden  Gardens ;  and  near  by  are  the 
town  hall,  post-office,  and  other  government 

buildings,   a  great   many   churches  belonging   to 
H.  I.— 9 


130  Political  Divisions. 

different  nations  and  creeds,  large  costly  stores, 
and  thousands  of  elegant  private  residences.  The 
latter  are  two  storied  with  stuccoed  fronts  and 
tall  columns,  spacious  verandahs  and  close-fitting 
Venetian  blinds,  and  each  occupies  a  separate 
enclosure  surrounded  by  a  substantial  wall,  which 
gives  an  air  of  grandeur  and  wealth.  The  style  of 
living  is  suited  to  the  dwelling,  combining  the 
luxuries  of  the  East  with  the  imported  comforts 
and  elegancies  of  the  West.  The  native  portion 
of  the  city,  which  is  entirely  distinct  from  the 
Cheringhee  or  European  quarter,  consists  of  a  dense 
network  of  narrow,  dirty  streets,  lined  with  houses 
of  small  and  mean  appearance.  Some  of  the 
native  residences  are  large  and  showy ;  but  the 
majority  of  these  people  live  in  mud-huts,  or  in  little 
shanties  formed  of  bamboo  poles  with  coarse  mats 
tied  over  them.  The  bazaars  are  numerous  and 
extensive,  consisting  of  whole  long  lines  of  shops 
swarming  with  tradespeople,  buyers  and  sellers, 
and  makers  of  various  wares,  who  fill  the  shops, 
and  crowd  every  avenue,  some  exchanging  pleas- 
ant words,  others  clamoring  for  trade,  and  a  few 
uttering  coarse  jests  or  chaffing  each  other  in 
passing;  but  scarcely  ever  a  profane  word  is  spoken. 


The  Black  Hole.  133 

Drunkenness  and  profanity,  when  found  among 
the  Hindus  at  all,  are  imported  vices,  acquired  by 
intercourse  with  Christian  nations,  and  not  indig- 
enous to  the  soil.  At  these  little  cell-like  bazaar 
shops  may  be  purchased  every  conceivable  variety 
of  wares,  native  and  foreign,  almost  every  lan- 
guage is  heard,  and  every  style  of  features,  com- 
plexion and  attire  may  be  studied.  A  little  world 
of  itself  is  this  great  busy  city,  full  of  life  and 
beauty  and  activity,  that  makes  one  grow  stronger, 
and  more  hopeful  of  his  race  as  he  watches  the 
energy  and  buoyancy,  and  all  the  concentrated  life 
of  a  Calcutta  bazaar. 

One  point  of  interest  must  not  be  omitted.  On 
the  site  where  the  post-office  now  stands,  was 
once  the  memorable  "  Black  Hole  "  — a  small  close 
dungeon  in  the  old  fort  —  the  scene  of  that  terrible 
catastrophe  that  has  made  the  name  of  Suraj-al- 
Dowlah  infamous  wherever  our  language  is  spoken. 
When  Calcutta,  on  the  20th  of  June,  1756,  was 
captured  by  Suraj,  the  British  garrison,  consisting 
of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  men,  under  the 
command  of  Mr.  Holwell,  were  locked  up  for  the 
night  in  a  strongly-barred  room,  only  eighteen 
feet  square.  The  weather  was  intensely  hot ;  and 


134  Political  Divisions. 

conflagrations  raging  in  different  parts  of  the  fort, 
rendered  the  atmosphere  unusually  oppressive. 
The  only  window  to  the  little  room  opened 
toward  the  west,  whence,  under  the  best  circum- 
stances, but  little  air  could  enter,  and  this  was 
further  obstructed  by  a  projecting  roof  outside, 
and  thick  iron  bars  within.  In  a  short  time  the 
sufferings  of  the  poor  prisoners  became  unendura- 
ble ;  every  effort  was  made,  and  immense  bribes 
offered  to  touch  the  hearts  of  their  jailers  ;  but  in 
vain,  and  when  morning  came,  one  hundred  and 
twenty-three  had  died  of  thirst  and  foul,  stifling 
air,  some  perhaps  trampled  to  death  in  the  dark- 
ness by  their  tortured  comrades.  Only  twenty- 
three  of  the  little  company  came  out  alive,  and 
were  then  released  by  their  inhuman  jailers.  An 
obelisk  fifty  feet  high  was  afterwards  erected  near 
the  spot  in  memory  of  the  victims  of  this  terri- 
ble tragedy. 

On  the  eastern  coast  line  of  India,  bordering  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  is  the  Presidency  of  Madras 
—  a  long,  narrow  slip  of  territory,  including 
within  its  bounds  the  states  of  Arcot,  Panjore, 
Vizianagram,  and  Cochin.  The.  ancient  province 
of  British  India,  formerly  known  as  the  Carnatic, 


The   Carnatic.  137 

extending  from  Cape  Comorin  to  16°  north  latitude, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  ninety  miles,  was 
almost  synonymous  with  this  Presidency,  and 
included  all  the  chief  cities,  i.  e  ,  Madras,  Pondi- 
cherry,  Arcot,  Madura,  Tanjore,  Trichinopoly, 
Nellore,  and  Vellore.  The  Carnatic  formed  origi- 
nally the  Hindu  kingdom  of  Carnata,  and  after 
various  changes,  was  finally  included  in  the  domin- 
ions of  the  nabob  of  Arcot ;  then  the  contentions 
arising  from  a  disputed  possession  brought  the 
French  and  English  into  a  collision,  that  ended  in 
the  transfer  of  the  Carnatic  to  the  East  India 
Company,  in  1801,  the  reigning  nabob,  Azim-al- 
Omrah,  receiving  a  pension  equal  to  one-fifth  of 
the  revenue  ;  and  his  chief  officials  being  provided 
for.  The  last  titular  nabob  died  in  1855,  without 
heirs,  and  the  Carnatic  has  since  been  included  in 
the  Presidency  of  Madras.  The  Eastern  Ghauts 
divide  the  Presidency  of  Madras  into  two  parts,  the 
mountains  running  parallel  with  the  coast,  causing 
a  great  difference  in  climate  between  the  two  sec- 
tions. The  seaboard,  in  dry  weather,  is  the  hottest 
part  of  India,  the  thermometer  sometimes  reaching 
130°  in  the  shade ;  while  the  table-lands  are 
delightfully  cool  and  salubrious.  At  Bangalore, 


138  Political  Divisions. 

which  belongs  to  the  Mysore  country,  included  in 
the  Carnatic,  the  climate  is  sufficiently  temperate 
for  the  cultivation  of  grains,  vegetables  and  fruits, 
that  could  not  endure  the  heat  of  the  plains  — 
wheat,  strawberries,  and  potatoes  being  readily 
produced.  Bangalore  has  connected  with  it  many 
associations  of  historic  interest.  While  the 
French  and  English  were  fighting  in  the  Carnatic, 
Hyder  Ali  had  risen  from  a  subordinate  position  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  Mysore ;  and  by 
subjugating  the  Nairs  of  Malabar,  and  taking  pos- 
session of  several  small  tracts  of  land  in  Southern 
India,  he  had  established  a  principality  for  him- 
self. While  at  the  head  of  the  Mysorean  army, 
Hyder  had  received  from  his  sovereign  the 
j Off  hire  or  fief  of  Bangalore,  from  which  to  sup- 
port himself  while  taking  care  of  his  master's 
forces.  This  able  and  unscrupulous  man,  who 
soon  dethroned  his  sovereign  to  establish  a  dynasty 
of  his  own,  strongly  fortified  Bangalore,  and  made 
it  one  of  his  chief  strongholds.  The  fort  is  in 
the  shape  of  an  oval,  about  a  mile  in  circumference, 
and  surrounded  by  a  deep  ditch.  By  both  Hyder 
and  his  son  Tippoo,  it  was  deemed  almost  impreg- 
nable, but  did  not  prove  strong  enough  to  hold 


Bangalore.  139 

out  against  the  cannonade  of  British  artillerists  ; 
and  in  1791,  being  stormed  by  the  English  troops, 
under  Lord  Oornwallis,  it  was  carried  with  terrible 
slaughter.  It  has  since  been  held  by  the  English, 
and  is  now  the  principal  health-station  for  the 
army  belonging  to  the  Madras  Presidency,  espec- 
ially adapted  to  this  purpose  by  Hie  salubrious  cli- 
mate and  accessible  position.  English  regiments, 
after  being  quartered  for  several  years  in  Madras, 
Tanjore,  Trichinopoly  or  other  stations  on  the 
plains,  are  transferred  to  Bangalore,  and  after 
remaining  there  a  year  or  two,  give  place  to  others, 
needing  a  similar  change.  The  barracks  at  Banga- 
lore are  ample  for  the  accommodation  of  many 
regiments  of  cavalry  and  infantry  :  and  there  are 
pretty  bungalows,  surrounded  by  gardens,  as 
quarters  for  the  officers.  On  the  spacious  parade- 
ground  the  troops  are  daily  exercised,  and  their 
presence  greatly  enlivens  the  pretty  town  in  its 
serial  elevation  of  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  town  of  Bangalore  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  fort,  and  contains  about  a  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants,  some  sixty  thousand  of 
wKora  are  Canarese,  and  live  within  the  mud- 
walls  of  the  town,  and  about  forty  thousand  are 


140  Political  Divisions. 

Tamil  people,  living  in  a  separate  quarter,  and 
deriving  their  support  mainly  from  the  army.  A 
good  road  over  a  hilly  country  leads  westward  to 
Seringapatarn,  which  likewise  is  rife  with  scenes 
that  suggest  to  the  student  of  Indian  history 
thoughts  of  armed  hosts  and  bloody  encounters 
between  Mussulman  and  British  troops,  of  victory 
and  defeat,  with  all  their  train  of  horrors,  engulf- 
ing the  innocent  with  the  guilty,  and  flooding  the 
land  with  desolation  and  ruin.  After  the  capture 
of  Bangalore,  in  1791,  Lord  Cornwallis  advanced 
upon  Seringapatarn,  and  after  capturing  the  hill- 
forts  between  the  two  cities,  he  attacked  Tippoo 
Sahib  by  night,  defeating  him,  with  terrible 
loss.  Compelled  to  retire  within  his  stronghold, 
and  threatened  by  a  further  advance  of  the  Eng- 
lish, the  haughty  Sultan  was  compelled  to  make 
peace,  with  the  surrender  of  half  his  territory. 
But  war  was  recommenced  in  1799,  and  in  May 
an  English  force  looked  down  from  the  neighbor- 
ing heights  on  the  water-girt  fortress  of  Seringa- 
patam.  The  English  forces  were  led  by  General 
Baird,  who  had  himself  been  a  prisoner  within 
the  dungeons  of  "  The  city  of  Sri-Runga  ;  "  and 
here  the  blood-thirsty  Tippoo  met  his  fate.  Sally- 


Death  of  Tippoo  Sahib  141 

ing  out,  with  his  usual  bravery,  to  meet  the  victors, 
when  the  place  had  been  carried  by  storm,  Tippoo 
fell,  pierced  by  two  musket  balls.  An  English 
soldier  not  knowing  who  he  was,  and  desirous  to 
possess  himself  of  the  gleaming  jewels  that  sur- 
rounded the  Sultan's  waist,  attempted  to  unclasp 
the  girdle ;  but  the  prince  still  held  his  sword  in 
his  stiffening  hand,  and  with  it,  he  struck  a  blow, 
his  last,  that  severely  wounded  the  soldier.  The 
latter,  frenzied  with  pain  and  indignation  shot  the 
dying  man  through  the  head,  and  thus  perished 
one  of  the  greatest  tyrants  that  ever  lived.  His 
very  name  is  synonymous  with  "  tiger  ;  "  and  he 
is  reported  to  have  said,  that  he  would  "  rather 
live  two  days  as  a  tiger,  than  a  hundred  days  as  a 
sheep."  Possessed  of  a  cruel,  rapacious  spirit,  he 
seems  to  have  delighted  in  scenes  of  blood,  and  to 
have  found  his  supreme  happiness  in  pursuing  to 
the  death  Christian  and  Pagan,  Anglo-Saxon  and 
native  Indian.  Two  magnificent  tombs  in  the 
beautiful  Lai  Bagh,  "  Red  Garden,"  mark  the  last 
resting-place  of  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo 
Sahib  —  names  spoken  only  with  abhorence,  even 
by  their  own  people,  whom  they  alienated  by  injus- 
tice and  cruelty. 


142  Political  Divisions. 

The  state  of  Cochin  covers  an  area  of  one  thous- 
and three  hundred  and  sixty  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  six  hundred  thousand.  It  is  in  a 
subsidiary  alliance  with  the  British  Government, 
and  pays  a  tribute  of  $  100,000  a  year.  The  reign- 
ing Rajah  is  of  the  Ks-chatrya  caste,  and  is 
descended  from  a  Viceroy  of  the  Chola  Kings, 
who  ruled  in  the  ninth  century.  He  does  not 
speak  English  ;  but  is  a  thorough  Sanscrit  scholar, 
and  well  acquainted  with  the  native  literature. 

Arcot,  as  a  state,  has  no  longer  any  real  existence, 
though  once  of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
present  representatives  of  the  former  Nawabs, 
reside  in  the  city  of  Madras,  fallen  from  their 
high  estate,  in  regard  to  power  and  wealth,  but 
highly  exalted  by  their  virtues  and  intellectual 
graces  in  the  esteem  of  both  natives  and  Euro- 
peans. A  pamphlet  was  published  a  few  years 
ago  in  Madras,  setting  forth  their  claims  to  con- 
sideration, and  giving,  besides  their  genealogy, 
such  matters  as  notes  from  former  governors  ask- 
ing them  to  breakfast,  or  acknowledging  a  supply 
of  dishes  from  their  table.  The  father  of  the 
present  Prince,  sent  to  Queen  Victoria,  in  1860,  a 
poem  written  by  himself,  congratulating  Her 


Travancore.  143 

Majesty  on  the  accession  of  her  new  sovereignty 
as  "  Empress  of  India ; "  and  closing  with  the 
words :  "  Through  the  favor  of  the  Most  Holy 
Jesus  Christ,  may  this  assumption  of  rule  prove 
auspicious  to  you  ;  and  may  your  dominions  last 
till  the  resurrection.'' 

The  Rajah  of  Travancore,  despite  his  Observatory 
and  his  attainments  in  science,  is  a  Hindu  of  the 
Hindus,  and  of  the  strictest  sect  regarding  all 
national  observances. 

His  fair  domain  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  few 
states  that  have  always  been  under  Hindu  rule, 
and  governed  by  Hindu  laws ;  but  the  laws 
framed  in  1490  were  remodelled  in  1811.  The 
succession  is  in  the  female  line,  that  is,  the  Rajah 
is  succeeded  by  the  son  of  his  daughter.  Various 
conjectures  have  arisen  as  to  the  cause  of  so 
strange  a  law,  of  which,  however,  very  little  is 
really  known ;  for  these  Tambarettes,  or  Heredi- 
tary Queens  of  Travancore  are,  to  us  at  least, 
"  Purdah  women  "  in  the  fullest  sense,  of  whom 
the  bare  mention  is  about  all  that  has  come  down 
to  us ;  except  that  single  romance  of  the  young 
Englishman  with  whom  the  queen  "  fell  in  love," 
and  who,  declining  to  marry  her,  she  sent  away 


144  Political  Divisions. 

in  1685,  loaded  with  costly  gifts ;  and  even  this 
solitary  story  is  half  unwritten,  for  as  to  whence 
the  hero  came,  why  he  so  persistently  declined 
this  royal  alliance,  how  he  left,  and  whither  he 
went,  we  have  no  information  Orine,  the  histo- 
rian of  British  India,  is  reported  to  have  been 
born  in  Anjenga,  farther  north  on  this  coast;  as 
was  also  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Draper,  Sterne's  "  Eliza." 
The  Maharajahs  of  Vizianagram  claim  descent 
from  the  Ranas  of  Oodeypore,  the  most  illustrious 
Rajput  family  in  India,  whose  ancestors  conquered 
Oudh,  at  a  very  remote  period,  and  one  of  whose 
more  recent  progenitors,  at  the  modest  date  A.  D. 
519,  conquered  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
present  Madras  Presidency,  and  established  a 
dynasty  that  reigned  over  the  land  for  nine 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  A  chief  of  Viziana- 
gram built  the  present  fort  in  1712,  and  enjoyed 
great  power  under  Aurungzebe.  In  1756,  when 
M.  Bussy  moved  into  the  Circars,  the  Rajah  joined 
him  with  ten  thousand  men.  There  were  five  of 
these  Circars,  that  together  constituted  an  old 
division  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  but  have,  of 
late  years,  been  distributed  among  the  British 
districts  of  Guntoor,  Masulipatan,  and  others. 


Madras.  145 

After  various  successes  and  disasters  the  French 
were  driven  out,  and  overtures  were  made  to  the 
English,  who,  as  usual,  were  quite  willing  to  step 
into  the  possession  of  so  goodly  a  land.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1758,  Lord  Clive  sent  Colonel  Ford  with 
a  considerable  force  to  aid  the  chief  in  a  general 
buccaneering  expedition,  in  which  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  plunder  should  be  equally  divided,  and 
that  conquered  countries  should  be  delivered  to 
the  Rajah,  who  was  to  collect  the  revenues,  and 
pay  fifty  thousand  rupees  a  month  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  troops.  The  following  year,  the 
chief  died  without  issue,  and  one  of  his  wives 
"  performed  suttee."  Then  followed  trouble  about 
the  succession,  and  the  land  was  torn  by  civil  dis- 
cord ;  but  in  1765  the  Emperor  Shah  Alum  bestowed 
four  of  these  Circars  upon  the  British  East  India 
Company,  as  a  free  gift ;  and  Guntoor,  the  fifth, 
came  into  possession  of  the  Company  in  1788. 
They  have  since  been  held  by  the  English,  as  con- 
stituent portions  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras. 

Cananore,  a  seaport  town   in   the  province    of 

Malabar,   is   a  town  of  great  antiquity.     It   was 

taken  in  1501  by  the  Portuguese,  who  fortified  it, 

but  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  in  1664.      The 

H.  I.— 10 


146  Political  Divisions. 

Dutch  sold  it  to  a  native  Mohammedan  family,  the 
head  of  which,  under  the  title  of  Beebee,  professed 
absolute  authority  over  it,  with  a  small  adjacent 
territory  and  the  Laccadive  Islands,  till  1791, 
when  it  became  tributary  to  the  English. 

They  have  strengthened  the  fort  and  provided 
accommodations  for  three  or  four  regiments  of 
soldiers,  and  it  is  now  the  principal  military 
station  in  the  province  of  Malabar. 

Fifteen  miles  from  Arcot  is  Vellore,  a  well- 
fortified  town,  that  was,  for  centuries,  a  stronghold 
of  the  chieftains  of  Southern  India.  The  ditch 
that  encircles  the  fort  is  filled  with  water  from 
the  Palar  River,  and  infested  with  swarms  of 
alligators,  that  serve  as  an  invincible  guard,  none 
daring  to  venture  through  the  moat,  lest  these 
scaly  monsters  should  enfold  them  in  too  loving 
an  embrace.  Vellore  is  famous  for  a  fearful 
tragedy  enacted  there  in  the  year  1806.  The 
sons  of  Tippoo  had  been  kept,  after  the  fall  of 
their  father's  kingdom,  in  a  sort  of  easy  confine- 
ment within  this  fort.  The  Mohammedans  who, 
with  the  overthrow  of  Tippoo's  dynasty,  lost  their 
own  power  and  influence,  felt  aggrieved  by  the 
imprisonment  of  the  princes,  and  when  to  this 


THE  PALACE  OF  THE  SETHS,  AJMEBE. 


A  Seapoy  Butchery.  149 

source  of  trouble  was  added  another,  in  respect  to 
some  new  regulations  of  the  dress  of  Seapoy 
soldiers,  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Seapoys 
against  the  English  troops  was  forthwith  inaugu- 
rated. In  the  still  hour  of  the  night,  two  battal- 
ions of  native  soldiers  surrounded  the  barracks  of 
the  English,  and  poured  in  upon  the  sleeping 
soldiers  a  plentiful  discharge  of  musketry  through 
every  door  and  window.  Simultaneously  with 
this  movement,  the  sentries,  guard,  and  inmates 
of  the  hospital  were  cruelly  assassinated ;  the 
armed  Seapoys  rushing  in  upon  their  defenceless 
victims,  shooting  down  every  one  who  attempted 
to  escape,  and  committing  all  manner  of  atrocities, 
till,  as  they  supposed,  not  one  of  the  garrison  was 
left.  But  one  fugitive  had  in  some  way  eluded 
their  vigilance,  and  making  all  speed  to  Arcot, 
told  the  fearful  tale  of  the  butchery  of  his  com- 
rades. No  time  was  lost  in  dispatching  a  regi- 
ment of  British  dragoons  to  the  scene  of  the 
frightful  massacre,  who,  eager  to  avenge  the  mur- 
der of  their  compatriots,  charged  through  the 
unguarded  gates  of  the  fort,  and  cut  down,  with- 
out mercy,  the  mutineers,  who  had  been  so 
engrossed  with  their  deeds  of  blood  and  rapine  as 


150  Political  Divisions. 

to  have  neglected  all  means  of  defence.  Six 
hundred  were  thus  slain  on  the  spot,  and  two 
hundred  more  dragged  from  the  concealments  to 
which  they  had  fled  and  shot  -without  mercy. 
The  sons  of  Tippoo  were  shortly  after  removed  to 
Calcutta,  and  placed  in  durance,  at  a  distance  from 
their  father's  former  rule  and  friends,  where  their 
presence  was  less  likely  to  incite  revolt. 

The  city  of  Madras,  the  capital  of  the  Presi- 
dency, lies  upon  the  eastern  coast,  thirteen  degrees 
north  of  the  equator.  It  stretches  for  several 
miles  along  the  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  upon 
a  flat,  sandy  plain,  raised  but  a  few  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  old  walled  city  is  known  as 
the  "  Black  Town,"  from  its  being  densely  popu- 
lated by  Hindus.  On  the  southern  side,  the  large, 
strong  fort  of  St.  George  is  built  into  the  wall, 
and  gives  a  very  commanding  appearance  from  the 
sea-board.  Around  this  central  town  and  fort  is 
the  esplanade  —  an  unoccupied,  beautifully  level 
space,  seven  hundred  yards  wide,  and  stretching 
entirely  around  the  fort.  This  esplanade  prevents 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  under  cover.  The 
rapidly  increasing  population  of  this  portion  of 
the  city,  finding  no  room  within  the  walls,  has 


Founding  Madras.  151 

spread  in  a  continuous  semi-circle  of  suburbs 
'beyond  the  esplanade  and  around  the  old  town. 
The  residences  of  the  English  are  without  the 
city,  and  almost  entirely  in  the  district  south  of 
the  fort.  It  was  in  the  year  1639,  just  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  years  ago,  that  the  Rajah  of 
Chandgherry,  a  petty  prince  of  the  interior, 
granted  to  a  company  of  English  merchants  a 
spot  of  .ground  upon  which  to  build  a  fort,  and 
factories.  This  was  Madras,  then  only  a  small 
village  inhabited  by  a  few  fishermen  and  their 
families ;  and  this  was  the  nucleus  about  which 
has  gathered,  with  the  lapse  of  years,  the  present 
city  of  more  than  eight  hundred  thousand  inhabi- 
tants —  the  great  and  growing  metropolis  of  the 
British  possessions  in  Southern  India.  The 
proud  native  princes  who  once  held  court  here, 
and  looked  with  contempt  upon  the  handful  of 
foreign  merchants  who  had  sought  their  shores  for 
purposes  of  trade,  have  passed  away  and  been  for- 
gotten, and  their  descendants  live  upon  pensions 
granted  them  by  the  English  rulers  of  the  domains 
of  their  ancestors ;  while  the  little  English  colony, 
with  constantly  increasing  numbers,  and  wealth, 
and  influence,  have  turned  their  fort  into  a  walled 


152  .  Political  Divisions. 

town,  the  centre  of  widely-extended  possessions, 
and  are  able  to  dispense  protection  and  favor, 
where  once  they  sought  it. 

Mount  Road  is  the  favorite  evening  drive  of  the 
foreign  residents  of  Madras.  It  leads  from  the 
city  to  Mount  St.  Thome,  the  reputed  burial- 
place  of  the  Apostle  Thomas,  and  a  holy  place  of 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  India.  It  is  an  excellent 
road,  constructed  at  great  expense  by  the  British 
Government,  and  leads  past  many  objects  of 
interest.  The  old  fort,  with  its  historic  memories, 
where  in  the  arsenal  are  stored  the  keys  of 
Pondicherry  and  Carnatic  fortresses,  cannon  that 
belonged  to  some  of  Ryder's  batteries,  the  arms  of 
Tippoo  and  famous  chiefs  and  poligars  of  the 
ancient  time  —  what  echoes  of  the  past  they  waken  ! 
A  little  farther  on,  is  the  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  a  former  very  distinguished 
governor  of  Madras.  It  is  a  bronze  figure  upon  a 
lofty  pedestal  of  stone,  and  an  admirable  work  of 
art.  After  crossing  a  bridge  over  the  Coom  —  a 
little  river  that  passes  through  the  city  —  the 
Government  House  comes  in  view ;  a  large,  half- 
Oriental,  half-European  palace,  with  verandahs 
and  Venetian  blinds  protecting  each  story  from 


The   Government  House.  153 

the  glaring  sun  of  this  tropical  clime,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  spacious  park,  where  are  herds  of 
beautiful,  gentle  antelopes  grazing  beneath  the 
trees.  This  is  one  of  the  large  handsome  establish- 
ments provided  for  the  governor  of  Madras.  It 
contains  elegant  reception-rooms,  the  great  ban- 
queting-hall  where  the  Prince  of  Wales  was 
entertained  in  that  State  Banquet  of  fifty  covers, 
to  which  the  chief  personages  of  the  city  and 
Presidency  of  Madras  were  invited,  and  given  by 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham  in  honor  of  the  Prince's 
visit ;  elegant  library  and  private  sitting-rooms, 
boudoirs,  etc.,  all  fitted  in  exquisite  style,  but 
very  different  from  dwellings  of  the  same  grade 
in  England  or  America.  The  rooms,  as  in  nearly 
all  Anglo-Indian  residences,  are  larger,  the  ceilings 
higher,  the  windows  broader  and  more  numerous, 
and  all  shaded  by  Venetian  blinds.  Rich  lace 
hangings  take  the  place  of  silk  ;  there  is  neither 
mantle  nor  furnace-register,  not  even  a  chimney  to 
the  house,  and  in  every  room  there  are  great 
hand-punkahs,  that  are  kept  in  constant  motion  to 
cool  the  heated  atmosphere  by  their  lateral  sway- 
ing to  and  fro.  Then  there  are  at  the  Govern- 
ment House  in  Madras,  and  in  all  the  other 


154  Political  Divisions. 

Indian  capitals  where  the  English  have  either  a 
Governor  or  a  "  Resident,"  sentries  at  the  gates 
and  the  doors,  and  liveried  servants  everywhere, 
in  great  numbers,  with  costumes  specially  adapted 
to  the  country  —  a  sort  of  compromise  between 
India  and  England  ;  tasteful  in  many  respects,  but 
startling  nevertheless  to  unaccustomed  eyes.  Take 
as  an  example  the  liveries  of  the  Prince  of  Wales' 
personal  attendants  at  Bombay.  Mr.  Russell  says  : 

"  Besides  the  Governor's  servants  in  their  fine 
turbans  and  robes,  there  were  in  attendance  a 
small  battalion  of  those  engaged  for  the  Prince, 
in  ne\v  liveries  of  the  native  fashion  —  a  flat, 
white  head-dress,  with  a  broad  band  of  gold  lace 
running  diagonally  from  the  scarlet  top  to  the 
side,  scarlet  surcoats  buttoned  to  the  throat,  richly 
embroidered  with  gold  lace,  and  the  Prince's 
plumes  in  silver  on  the  breast,  laced  on  the  sleeves, 
edged  with  gold  lace,  and  confined  by  rich  cum- 
mer-bunds ;  but  — '  desinit  in  piscem '  *  —  the  glit- 
tering personages,  so  fine  above,  wore  thin  white 
trousers,  and  went  barefooted." 

After  Government  House  is  passed,  then  comes 
the  stores  of  jewellers,  silk-mercers,  milliners,  con- 
fectioners, and  many  other  tradesmen.  They  are 

•This  is  a  reference  to  the  words  of  Horace,  in  allusion  to  incongruity,  or  bad 
taste,  Desinit  in  piscent  mulier  formosa  suferna.  A  woman  beautiful  above, 
ends  in  the  tail  of  a  fish. 


Street  Sights  in  Madras.  157 

usually  large,  handsome  establishments,  standing 
in  large  "  compounds,"  and  are  kept  either  by 
Englishmen  or  Eurasians,  (mixed  breeds  of  Eng- 
lish and  Indian  parentage) ;  but  men  always. 
Sales-women  are  not  in  vogue  in  the  East,  except 
among  the  lower  class  of  native  dealers  in  the 
bazaars,  and  even  there  they  are  not  numerous.  The 
dwellings  of  European  residents  are  still  farther 
out.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  superb  mansions, 
stuccoed  and  pillared  in  elegant  style,  combining 
the  height  and  grandeur  of  the  best  class  of  Eng- 
lish residences,  with  the  porticos,  terraces,  and 
Venetians  of  the  Orient ;  a  fair  index  of  Anglo- 
Indian  life,  combining  the  luxuries  of  two  hemi- 
spheres, and  grafting  the  furniture,  equipage,  dress, 
table-fashions,  meats  and  wines  of  Europe  upon 
the  stock  of  Indian  ease,  sensuousness,  and  intense 
love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  art. 

All  along  the  streets,  in  both  the  old  and  new 
towns,  strange  sights,  costumes  and  incidents  are 
everywhere  visible.  Women  and  girls  with  huge 
baskets  gather  ordure  to  be  mixed  with  straw,  and 
dried  in  round  balls  for  fuel.  Grass-cutters  are 
coming  in  from  the  country,  each  with  a  bundle  of 
grass  on  his  head,  a  day's  supply  for  the  one  horse 


158  Political  Divisions. 

each  man  or  woman  tends.  Dhobies  (washer-mew), 
with  enormous  bundles  of  clothes  that  they  are 
taking  to  some  of  the  numerous  tanks  on  the  sub- 
urbs to  wash  by  beating  them  against  the  rocks, 
plod  heavily  along,  almost  reeling  beneath  their 
ponderous  loads.  A  couple  of  peons  or  native 
policeman,  tall,  fine-looking  men  in  red  turbans  and 
wide,  Moorish  pantaloons,  walk  by  with  stately 
step,  and  keen,  watchful  eyes,  as  if  ever  on  the 
alert.  Countrymen  and  travellers  from  other 
towns  pass  loiteringly  along  gazing  at  every  new 
sight,  and  Coolies  with  great  boxes  on  their  heads, 
or  three  in  company,  pulling  an  awkward,  lumber- 
ing, two-wheeled  cart,  piled  with  fruits  and  provis- 
ions, stop  to  deliver  parcels  at  the  various  houses 
on  the  road.  But  these  are  not  the  only  vehicles 
to  be  seen  on  the  mountain  road.  At  early  morn- 
ing, before  the  sun  is  up,  nearly  all  Europeans 
go  out  to  inhale  the  pleasant  morning  breeze  ;  and 
in  the  evening,  just  before  dark,  everybody  goes 
out  for  a  drive  along  the  esplanade  or  mountain 
road.  English  officers  of  rank  roll  along  in  their 
phaetons,  with  liveried  coachman  and  footman,  and 
a  syce  (groom)  running  beside  each  horse.  Ladies, 
in  full  dress,  recline  among  silken  cushions  in  their 


The  English  in  Madras.  159 

light  pony  palanquins,  while  a  syce  runs  by  the 
pony's  head,  with  an  arm  thrown  over  his  neck, 
arid  a  footman  runs  before  crying  out  to  pedes- 
trians to  clear  the  way.  Others,  perhaps  a  lady 
and  gentleman,  or  a  family  of  parents  and  children, 
fair-haired,  blue-eyed  English  children,  looking 
very  lovely  among  the  crowd  of  swarthy  natives, 
will  be  taking  their  airing  in  an  elegant  silver- 
mounted  barouche  behind  a  pair  of  superb  Eng- 
lish "  trotters,"  the  entire  turnout  a  genuine  im- 
portation, unmistakably  English  in  its  substantial 
make,  strikingly  in  contrast  with  the  lighter 
palanquins  and  small  ponies  generally  seen  in 
Indian  cities.  Young  men,  clerks,  and  people  of 
modest  pretensions  are  driven  in  buggies  and 
pony  palanquins,  but  the  groom  does  not  sit  by  his 
master's  side,  nor  at  all,  but  runs  at  the  horse's 
head,  holding  on  to  the  animal's  mane.  Occasion- 
ally a  strange-looking  vehicle  with  a  pyramidal 
top,  drawn  by  a  pair  of  bullocks,  and  known  as  a 
"  bandy  "  passes  in  the  crowd,  its  Hindu  occupant 
seated  a  la  oriental  upon  a  cushion  laid  flat  on  the 
floor,  while  the  driver,  sitting  at  his  master's  feet, 
urges  on  the  bullocks  by  cries  and  kicks,  varied 
by  an  occasional  vigorous  twist  of  the  animals' 


160  Political  Divisions. 

tails.  Other  bandies  of  more  stylish  construction 
with  gilded  domes  and  silken  curtains,  and  drawn 
by  pairs  of  pure  white  oxen,  contain  Hindu 
ladies,  only  their  bright  eyes  or  jewelled  noses  vis- 
ible from  behind  their  silken  screens,  as  they  peer 
wistfully  out  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  active 
world,  of  which  they  know  so  little.  There  are 
tiny  little  vehicles  drawn  by  stunted  red  bullocks, 
looking  almost  as  diminutive  as  Newfoundland 
dogs ;  and  perhaps  only  a  few  steps  off  a  huge 
elephant,  loaded  with  camp  equipage,  or  carrying  a 
howdah,  in  which  a  couple  of  sailors  are  enjoying 
the  novelty  of  their  first  elephant  ride,  as  the  huge 
animal  brings  down  his  ponderous  feet  with  a  jolt, 
that  to  our  sailors  is  far  more  uneasy  than  their 
ship's  motions  during  a  furious  "  nor' wester." 

Madras  is  rich  in  educational  institutions,  among 
which  are  a  Medical  College,  School  of  Arts, 
Engineering  College,  Harris  School  for  Moham- 
medans, Doveton  College  for  Eurasians,  Govern- 
ment Normal  School,  Government  Madrissa  School 
for  Mohammedans,  Military  Female  Orphan  Asy- 
lum, Hindu  Schools  for  boys,  Hindu  Schools  for 
girls,  Convent  School,  Free  Church  Schools,  Scot- 
tish Orphanage,  Bishop's  School,  London  Mission 


Schools  of  Madras.  161 

Schools,  Church  Mission  Schools  for  boys,  and 
for  girls,  Wesleyan  Schools,  Three  Schools  main- 
tained by  the  Rajah  of  Vizianagram,  Female  Nor- 
mal Schools,  Hindu  Proprietary,  and  two  other 
schools  under  purely  native  management,  and 
perhaps  some  others. 

The  Madras  Museum  is  a  valuable  institution,  in 
which  the  educated  natives  are  said  to  take  much 
interest. 

The  Agri-Horticultural  Gardens  are  delightful, 
and  abound  in  wonderful  specimens  of  plants  and 
animals,  with  some  gigantic  and  curious  specimens 
of  forest  growth. 

In  many  respects  Madras  is  esteemed  the  very 
queen  of  the  Indian  capitals ;  and  the  whole  city 
wears  an  aspect  of  refinement,  intelligence,  and 
growing  prosperity. 

H.  I— 11 


CHAPTER   IV. 

PRESIDENCY   OF  BOMBAY. 

THE  Presidency  of  Bombay  comprises  a  strip 
of  territory  about  nine  hundred  miles  in 
length,  extending  from  the  northern  limit  of 
Scinde  to  the  kingdom  of  Mysore  on  the  south, 
along  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  west  coast  of 
Hindustan.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  The  Presidency  contains  twenty- 
two  districts  apportioned  among  three  Commis- 
sioners, i.e.,  Scinde  on  the  north,  and  the  northern 
and  southern  divisions  of  Bombay  proper,  in 
which  are  included  Ahmedabad,  Kaira,  Surat, 
Broach,  Bombay  Island,  Darwar,  Candeish,  Tauna 
or  North  Concon,  Rutnagherry  or  South  Concon, 
Poonah,  Ahmednuggnr,  and  Canara.  The  large 

feudatory  states  of  Cutch  and  Guzerat,  the  chiefs 

162 


Climate  and  Products.  165 

of  which  are  subject  merely  to  British  supervision, 
intervene  between  Scinde  and  the  northern  and 
southern  divisions.  The  coast-line  is  about  a  thous- 
and and  fifty  miles  in  length.  In  regard  to  soil, 
there  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  several  regions. 
That  of  Scinde  comprises  the  low,  level  basin  of 
the  Indus,  where  strips  of  exceedingly  fertile  land 
alternate  with  deserts ;  the  two  Concons  form  a 
hilly  region  lying  between  the  Western  Ghauts 
and  the  Arabian  Sea ;  the  eastward  slope  of  the 
Western  Ghauts  forming  the  lovely,  elevated  table- 
lands, enjoy  an  almost  perennial  verdure ;  while 
around  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  the  land  is  flat  and 
alluvial.  There  exists  an  equal  variation  in  regard 
to  climate  —  that  of  Scinde  being  sultry  and  dry, 
with  only  a  light  rainfall ;  in  the  Concons  the  heat 
is  as  great  as  in  Scinde,  but  the  fall  of  rain  is 
much  greater.  The  average  annual  temperature 
of  Bombay  Island  is  about  80°,  and  the  rainfall 
averages  eighty  inches  per  annum,  while  on  the 
Ghauts  table-lands  the  climate  is  temperate  and 
salubrious.  The  vegetable  products  are  cotton 
and  rice  on  the  coast;  sugar  and  indigo  in  Can- 
deish ;  wheat,  barley,  hemp  and  tobacco  in  Scinde, 
and  opium  in  the  native  states  of  Malwa  and 


166  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

Guzerat.  Merchants  who  wish  to  send  their  opium 
to  the  city  of  Bombay  need  to  obtain  permits 
from  the  government,  by  whom  it  is  purchased  at 
a  certain  price  per  chest  j  and  the  producers  dare 
not  dispose  of  it  elsewhere.  Considerable  quan- 
tities of  silk  are  raised,  and  there  are  silk  manufac- 
tories in  some  of  the  towns.  The  system  of  land 
taxes  in  Bombay  was  very  carefully  arranged 
before  being  put  into  operation,  about  twenty 
years  ago.  There  has  been  a  survey  and  assess- 
ment of  all  the  lands  ;  and  the  fields  have  been 
mapped  and  marked  by  permanent  objects,  the  re- 
moval of  which  is  a  penal  offence.  They  are 
classified  for  assessment  with  reference  to  soil, 
climate,  and  proximity  to  market,  and  with  very 
few  exceptions  the  land  is  held  directly  from  the 
government.  When  the  rate  of  taxation  was 
fixed,  it  was  equal  to  one-half  the  yearly  value  of 
the  land ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  general  im- 
provement of  the  lands,  the  proportion  now  is  said 
to  be  somewhat  less.  The  land  revenue  is  reported 
as  yielding  a  larger  sum  per  capita  than  in  any 
other  section  of  India.  There  are  now  very 
nearly  two  thousand  miles  of  railway  in  this  Pres- 
idency ;  and  the  city  of  Bombay  has  the  honor  of 


168  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

having  had  the  first  railway  in  the  East  Indies. 
It  was  opened  between  that  city  and  Tanna,  April 
6,  1853.  Bombay  is  now  the  terminus  of  the 
"  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central  India  Railway," 
and  of  the  great  "  Indian  Peninsular  Railway,"  as 
well  as  of  the  steamship  lines  from  England. 
There  is  also  telegraphic  communication  with  Cal- 
cutta, opened  in  1854,  and  with  Falrnouth,  Eng- 
land, opened  1870,  by  means  of  cables,  via  Aden, 
Malta,  and  Gibraltar. 

There  are  about  three  hundred  schools  in  the 
Presidency,  with  an  attendance  of  about  fourteen 
thousand  pupils ;  five-sixths  of  whom  are  in- 
structed in  the  native  languages,  and  only  one- 
sixth  in  English.  The  Island  of  Bombay  is  one  of 
an  important  group  that  have  planted  themselves 
before  the  estuary  or  wide  mouth  of  the  river 
Oolas,  seeming  thereby  to  form  a  sort  of  delta. 
The  island,  which  was  the  first  possession  in  India 
ever  acquired  by  the  English,  is  eight  miles  long, 
and  about  twenty  miles  in  circumference.  Shortly 
before  the  marriage  of  Charles  II.  of  England 
with  the  Infanta  Catharine  of  Portugal,  this  island 
was  conveyed  to  the  crown  of  England,  as  part  of 
the  dowry  of  that  princess.  About  seven  years 


170  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

later  the  king  transferred  it  to  the  East  India 
Company,  who  held  it  at  an  annual  rental  of  ten 
pounds  sterling,  until  1858,  when  the  home  gov- 
ernment assumed  direct  control  of  all  the  British 
East  India  possessions.  The  old  town  is  called  the 
Kila  or  "  Fort,"  and  occupies  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  the  island,  facing  the  wide  beautiful  harbor. 
To  call  it  a  "  fort  "  is,  however,  something  of  a 
misnomer,  for  there  is  much  beside  the  citadel 
within  those  walls  ;  and  one  meets  here,  at  least  in 
times  of  peace,  much  more  of  the  din  of  trade 
and  the  hurry  and  bustle  of  commercial  life  than 
of  the  cannon's  roar,  or  the  murderous  array  of 
battle.  The  visitor  enters,  it  is  true,  by  a  fortified 
gate,  and  there  are  veritable  ramparts  and  a  strong 
fortress  well  manned  by  native  troops  with  Euro- 
pean officers ;  but  there  is  a  great  deal  else  within 
the  walls  of  the  so-called  "Fort."  There  are 
splendid  docks,  immense  warehouses,  a  fine  arse- 
nal, and  those  famous  cotton  presses,  with  whole 
mountains  of  the  "  raw  material,"  waiting  to  be 
baled  and  shipped  to  China  or  Europe.  Higher 
up  toward  the  centre  of  the  fort,  and  round  an 
immense  square  are  the  Banks,  the  Town  Hall,  the 
Mint,  and  all  the  great  commercial  houses  of  the 


Bombay.  171 

city.  In  a  word,  all  that  represents  the  enormous 
wealth  and  world-wide  commerce  of  this  great, 
busy  city.  But  never  a  dwelling !  It  is  a  stu- 
pendous business  mart :  but  neither  native  nor 
European  lives  there.  Going  to  the  Fort  at  even 
an  hour  after  sunrise,  one  finds  the  long,  narrow, 
dirty  streets  without  sign  of  life,  save  for  the 
measured  tread  of  the  peon  (policeman)  on  duty. 
But  by  half-past  nine  or  ten  o'clock  the  appearance 
changes  utterly ;  doors  are  thrown  open,  the  busy 
hum  of  voices  and  the  rumble  of  wheels  are  heard 
everywhere,  and  the  wide,  beautiful  esplanade  is 
lined  with  carriages  from  which  step  forth  mer- 
chants and  their  numerous  employees,  (every 
clerk  has  his  own  palanquin,  and  no  Europeans 
walk  in  India)  ;  bank  officers  with  their  clerks,  buy- 
ers, sellers,  jobbers,  inspectors  and  idlers.  Every- 
body turns  toward  the  Fort,  the  grand  centre  of 
attraction  during  all  the  business  hours  of  the 
day ;  but  deserted  again  at  4  p.  M.,  when  every 
carriage  is  re-occupied  and  rolls  away  as  it  came, 
with  its  living  freight ;  white-robed  natives,  pro- 
tected by  huge  umbrellas,  file  out  with  dignified 
serenity,  and  again  the  grand  business  mart,  lately 
so  full  of  life  and  activity,  is  left  in  silence  and 


172  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

solitude  as  complete  as  that  of  a  city  of  the  dead, 
until  once  more  resurrected  by  the  "  ten  bells  " 
of  the  morning  hour  that  wake  the  sleeping  city 
to  new  life  and  activity.  For  residence,  each 
nation  has  its  separate  "quarter,"  where  national 
habits  and  social  proclivities  maybe  indulged  with- 
out danger  of  offending  the  prejudices  of  others. 
Nearer  than  any  other  race  to  the  business  portion 
of  the  city,  reside  the  Parsees  and  Bhoras,  two 
eminently  mercantile  races,  who  live  always  at 
their  places  of  business,  preferring  to  sacrifice  the 
pleasures  and  comforts  of  residence  in  other  more 
eligible  sections  in  order  to  larger  success  in  trade. 
The  Parsee  Bazaar  of  Bombay  is  a  long,  winding 
street,  lined  with  tall,  handsome,  capacious  man- 
sions. Their  first  floor  composed  of  substantial, 
but  rather  gloomy-looking  stalls,  is  devoted  to 
business  purposes,  whilst  the  upper  stories,  with 
their  broad  wooden  balconies  painted  in  bright 
colors,  and  numerous  windows  carved  and  orna- 
mented, form  dwelling-places  of  luxury  and 
elegance,  despite  their  unfashionable  location. 
Many  of  these  Parsee  dwellings  are  furnished  in 
princely  style,  with  gorgeous  silk  and  lace  hang- 
ings, Persian  carpets,  exquisitely-inlaid  satin-lined 


174  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

furniture,  and  incredible  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver  plate.  The  owners  live  like  lords  and  enter- 
tain in  sumptuous  style,  though  shrewd  financiers 
and  indefatigable  traders  during  business  hours. 
Some  Europeans  reside  at  Colaba,  a  long, 
narrow  promontory  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
island  to  the  south  of  the  Fort.  Lying  between 
the  port  and  Back  Bay,  it  possesses  one  of  the 
most  salubrious  climates  on  the  island.  It  has 
also  excellent  roads  and  lovely  gardens  laid  out 
all  around  the  spacious,  elegant  bungalows  that 
form  the  favorite  residences  of  wealthy  merchants 
and  others  in  this  section.  These  bungalows  are 
constructed  on  a  plan  specially  suited  to  a  tropical 
climate.  Being  built  on  raised  terraces  of  brick- 
work, they  are  kept  perfectly  dry  and  free  from 
the  deleterious  miasma  produced  by  the  abundant 
vegetation  of  ,the  tropics ;  the  roof  of  very  thick 
attap-leaved  thatch  laid  on  double,  secures  cool- 
ness far  better  than  tiles  or  slate ;  and  the  broad 
verandahs  on  all  sides  protect  the  walls  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  while  the  Venetian  blinds  from 
floor  to  ceiling  may  be  thrown  wide  open  at  night 
to  admit  the  refreshing  breezes  no  longer  freighted 
with  torrid  heat.  Other  residents,  preferring  more 


Bombay.  175 

stately  mansions  occupy  large  stone-faced  dwell- 
ings with  porticoes  and  marble  columns,  in  Euro- 
pean style,  that  serve  to  give  variety  to  the  land- 
scape'. On  the  extremity  of  the  promontory  are 
built  the  English  Barracks,  so  well  spoken  of  for 
their  commodious  arrangement  and  admirable 
adaptation  to  a  warm  climate ;  and  still  beyond  is 
the  Colaba  Light  House  that  commands  the  en- 
trance to  the  harbor,  with  her  clear  light  plainly 
visible  for  thirty  miles  from  the  shore.  On  the 
northern  side  of  the  Fort  and  the  beautiful  Maidan 
or  esplanade  that  runs  along  the  sea-beach  in 
front  of  the  fort,  is  the  "  Black  Town,"  so  called 
by  Europeans,  because  only  natives  reside  there. 
All  the  streets  that  traverse  this  great,  crowded 
town  are  broad  and  long ;  the  bazaar  streets  are 
bordered  by  small  booths,  the  flooring  of  which 
being  raised  several  feet  above  the  side-walk, 
serves  as  a  counter  upon  which  to  display  the  mul- 
titudinous wares  here  offered  for  sale.  The  houses 
that  skirt  the  bazaars  are  of  boards  or  brick,  and 
usually  three  or  four  stories  high,  with  porticoes, 
carved  fronts,  and  pillars  painted  in  bright  colors, 
giving  a  quaint  appearance,  not  altogether  un- 
pleasing.  The  ground  floor  of  many  of  the  houses 


176  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

forms  the  workshops  of  artisans,  where,  in  gloomy 
little  dens,  multitudes  of  half-naked  workmen 
busily  ply  their  respective  crafts,  producing  by  the 
aid  of  only  the  most  primitive  tools  those  marvels 
in  ebony,  silver  and  ivory  of  such  world-wide 
reputation,  as  well  as  arabesques  and  mosaics  in 
multitudinous  forms,  that  sell  in  Europe  for  fabu- 
lous prices.  Among  the  most  interesting  features 
of  the  bazaars,  two  especially  attract  the  European 
strangers.  The  first  is  the  great  number  of  races 
found  here,  characterized  by  such  infinite  diversity 
of  form,  feature  and  costume  ;  and  the  second  is 
the  wonderful  Arab  horse-market,  where  probably 
more  first-class  horses  are  offered  for  sale  than  in 
any  other  single  mart  in  the  world.  The  great 
number  and  variety  of  foreign  races  found  here 
is  due  first,  to  Bombay's  being  the  port  of  arrival 
for  emigrants  from  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and 
the  point  of  departure  for  pilgrims  bourd  to  Mecca 
and  Karbala ;  and  second  to  the  immense  foreign 
trade  of  this  great  shipping  city,  that  supplies  the 
products  of  Europe,  Arabia,  and  Northern  Africa 
to  at  least  two-thirds  of  India.  It  is  worth  a  trip 
across  the  ocean  to  study  some  of  these  faces,  so 
full  of  majestic  repose  and  serene  dignity ;  and 


H.  I.— 12 


178  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

even  their  varied  costumes  are  worthy  of  inspec- 
tion, as  indices  of  national  character  and  habits. 
Here  are  .Persians  or  "  Parsees  "  in  their  tall  caps, 
noting  down  every  arrival,  or  discussing  prices ; 
Arabs,  robed  as  their  countrymen  were  in  the  days 
when  Joseph  was  carried  a  slave,  into  Egypt ; 
stout  specimens  of  humanity  from  Guzerat,  each 
with  fine  muslin  enough  to  manufacture  half  a 
dozen  "  suits,"  twisted  in  pyramidal  form  about 
his  shapely  head,  and  dubbed  a  "  turban  ;  "  the 
Bunniah  of  Cutch,  whose  keen  black  eyes  gleam 
nearly  as  brightly  as  the  cornelians  he  is  "  sort- 
ing" with  evident  pride;  companies  of  blue- 
turbaned  men  of  Cabul,  whose  chief  business  in 
life  seems  to  be  the  perpetual  munching  of  dates  ; 
Bedouins  always,  however  otherwise  emplo}'ed, 
solacing  themselves  with  the  long  "  hubble  bub- 
bles "  that  are  at  once  their  joy  and  pride  ;  stately 
Gentoos,  comely  and  graceful,  in  flowing  robes  of 
pure  white  muslin;  and  the  filthy  Hindu  fakir, 
hideous  in  his  nakedness  and  deformity  ;  the 
lordly  Rajputs  from  the  North,  sporting  their  jew- 
elled weapons,  and  the  busy  Badagas  of  Southern 
India,  offering  for  sale  the  small  crops  cultivated 
On.  their  hill-side  farms ;  the  courteous  Chinese, 


Bombay.  179 

always  gentlemen,  under  whatever  disguise  of 
poverty  or  provocation :  the  grave  Burmese,  the 
cunning  Malay,  the  stately  Moor,  with  his  insepa- 
rable companion,  the  gold-mounted  hookah,  and 
the  smoke  rising  ever  in  graceful  wreaths  about 
his  turbaned  head;  all  these,  and  scores  of  others, 
a  busy  multitude,  gathered  it  would  seem,  from 
every  point  of  the  compass;  and  all  eagerly  intent 
upon  trading  off  his  own  wares  at  the  highest 
price,  and  putting  down  those  of  his  neighbor  to 
the  lowest.  And  their  speech,  what  a  veritable 
Babel  it  is !  Who  can  be  the  listeners  ?  —  for  they 
all  seem  talking  at  once,  and  each  a  different  lan- 
guage. Confused  and  confounded,  the  bewildered 
tourist  turns  with  a  sense  of  relief  to  the  horses, 
upon  whose  magnificent  proportions  he  may  feast 
his  eyes,  without  imagining  that  they  are  all  ad- 
dressing him  in  some  unknown  tongue,  to  which  it 
is  as  impossible  for  him  to  reply,  as  it  is  clearly  his 
duty  to  do  so.  So  he  looks  on,  thankful  that 
horses  do  not  talk. 

There  are  pure-blooded  Arabs  from  Djowfet  and 
Nedjed,  lovely,  graceful  creatures,  with  long,  silky 
manes,  and  eyes  tender  as  a  gazelle's;  Persian 
breeds  of  the  most  approved  standard,  noble  ani- 


180  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

mals  with  arched  neck  and  fiery  eye,  and  every 
curve  a  line  of  symmetry  and  beauty ;  superb 
English  trotters,  and  shaggy  Shetlands.  He  must 
be  fastidious  indeed  whose  equine  desires  cannot 
be  gratified  in  such  an  assortment  as  this,  where 
are  obtained  regularly  all  the  magnificent  horses 
displayed  daily  on  the  esplanade,  so  noted  for  its 
suberb  "turnouts"  on  the  fashionable  drive. 
Prices  range  from  fifty  dollars,  to  thousands ;  but 
all  lower  by  at  least  a  hundred  per  cent,  than  the 
same  horses  would  be  in  Europe  or  America; 
many  a  horse  being  sold  here  for  $1.500  that 
would  bring  readily  $3,000,  in  the  home  market. 

In  the  "Black  Town"  of  Bombay,  are  several 
large  Hindu  Temples,  and  one  noted  Mohamme- 
dan Mosque,  the  Jumma  Musjid  —  all  handsome 
edifices,  worthy  of  inspection  ;  but  of  far  more 
interest  to  strangers  is  the  great  Jain  Hospital  for 
Animals,  the  largest  and  most  complete  establish- 
ment of  the  sort  in  India.  This  hospital  is  located 
in  the  centre  of  the  most  densely  populated 
quarter  of  the  Black  Town.  It  is  supported  by 
contributions  from  the  most  wealthy  members  oi 
the  Jain  Fraternity;  and  here  are  received  and 
comfortably  maintained,  all  sick,  helpless,  and  de- 


182  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

formed  animals  of  every  species,  the  nursing  and 
attendance  being  continued  until  they  either  die  or 
recover.  Just  inside  the  gate  is  a  large  court, 
surrounded  by  sheds,  where  are  kept  only  oxen 
and  cows,  as  these  animals  being  regarded  as  sacred 
by  the  Hindus,  receive  "the  first  care,  and  a  hall  or 
area  exclusively  their  own.  In  the  next  court  are 
disabled  horses,  and  in  another,  dogs,  cats  and 
monkeys.  Some  sheep  and  goats  also  find  an 
asylum  here ;  and  yet,  farther  on,  are  birds,  fowls, 
insects,  and  even  reptiles ;  each  class  having  a 
quarter  distinct  from  the  others,  where  the  peculiar 
wants  and  habits  of  every  individual  inmate  are, 
as  far  as  possible,  provided  for.  Some  of  the 
animals  have  bandages  over  their  eyes ;  others, 
who  are  in  a  lame  or  helpless  condition,  are 
frequently  rubbed  down  by  the  attendants;  and 
both  food  and  water  are  .placed  within  reach  of 
the  lame  or  paralyzed.  All  are  constantly  supplied 
with  clean  straw,  with  water  in  abundance,  and 
with  every  facility  for  comfort  and  cleanliness, 
and  are  fed,  bathed,  and  dosed  when  necessary, 
with  the  same  gentle  care  and  tenderness  that  are 
bestowed  upon  human  beings.  Bald  monkeys, 
and  superannuated  crows  and  vultures  are  no 


An  Asylum  for  Beasts.  183 

uncommon  sights  in  this  paradise  of  the  brute 
creation :  and  occasionally  is  found  there,  even  a 
wooden  leg  supplying  the  place  of  the  original 
member. 

Oriental  nations  are  proverbially  kind  to  dumb 
animals,  even  beggars  often  sharing  their  scanty 
meals  with  stranger  brutes  that  happen  to  pass 
them  when  eating.  The  religion  of  both  Buddhists 
and  Brahminists  especially  enjoins  this  care  for 
the  well-being  of  dumb  animals;  but  the  Ja'ins, 
even  more  than  other  sects,  cherish  for  all  animal 
life  this  kindly  regard;  not  content  with  never 
harming  a  dumb  creature,  but  rigidly  inculcating 
the  obligation  to  protect  the  lives,  alleviate  the 
sufferings,  and  supply  the  needs,  so  far  as  possible, 
of  every  living  thing,  large  or  small.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  to  this  injunction  in  regard  to 
the  care  of  brute  creatures  is  due  the  very  great 
numbers  of  wild  beasts  and  noxious  reptiles  found 
in  every  part  of  India,  and  the  fearful  depredations 
they  are  constantly  committing.  Suffered  for 
ages  to  roam  unharmed  through  these  dense  Indian 
jungles,  enjoying  perfect  immunity  from  danger, 
they  have  gone  on  multiplying  and  increasing  till, 
in  some  regions,  they  seem  likely  to  become  the 


184  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

lords  paramount  of  the  country.  Of  late  years, 
the  English  Government  in  India  have  put  forth 
most  energetic  efforts  for  the  destruction  of  tigers, 
offering  a  reward  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
rupees  tor  every  one  killed ;  but  so  little  impres- 
sion has  yet  been  made  on  the  immense  herds  of 
these  ferocious  animals,  that  hundreds  of  children 
are  annually  carried  off  by  them.  In  1877,  the 
number  reached,  I  think,  nearly  four  hundred  in 
India  alone. 

The  European  and  Mussulman  Cemeteries,  and 
the  Cremation  Grounds  of  the  Hindus,  have  all 
their  location  outside  the  Black  Town,  reaching 
toward  the  sea-beach,  where  the  surging  waves 
sing  a  perpetual  requiem  well  suited  to  the 
solitary  grandeur  of  this  tropical  city  of  the  dead. 

Farther  on,  toward  Chowpatti,  Malabar  Hill, 
the  aristocratic  quarter  of  Bombay  is  reached. 
It  is  a  hilly  promontory,  larger  than  Colaba,  and 
contains  many  princely  dwellings,  surrounded  by 
the  choicest  shrubbery  and  rare  old  forests  of 
venerable  trees.  Among  the  cultivated  trees  are 
found  the  .gigantic  Baobab,  several  varieties  of  the 
Chinese  Pine,  quaint,  dwarfed  and  knotted  in  every 
conceivable  form ;  and  most  beautiful  of  all,  the 


186  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

"Gold  of  Mohur  Acacia,"  with  its  gleaming 
sprays  and  clusters  of  golden  blooms  glancing  out 
from  among  the  emerald  leaves. 

The  Governor's  house  is  built  on  the  summit 
of  a  steep  declivity  at  the  extremity  of  the 
island,  and  commands  a  noble  view  of  the  sea. 
This  is  no  longer  the  constant  residence  of  the 
Governor  of  Bombay;  but  being  regarded  as  the 
most  salubrious  portion  of  the  island,  it  is  always 
resorted  to,  in  times  of  fever  or  other  epidemics. 
The  ordinary  residence  is  the  Parell  Government 
House,  where  the  Prince  of  Wales  was  entertained 
on  his  recent  tour. 

On  the  western  coast  of  the  Malabar  promon- 
tory is  the  village  of  Walkeshwar,  diminutive 
enough  in  size,  but  withal  one  of  the  most  sacred 
places  in  India.  The  Brahmins  relate  a  legend 
that  has  for  its  hero  the  god  Rama,  who,  while  on 
a  warlike  expedition  to  Lunka,  used  to  receive 
every  night,  through  the  good  offices  of  a  geni, 
"an  emblem,"  whereby  he  was  able  to  continue 
his  devotions  to  Siva.  But  on  one  occasion,  when 
the  emblem  had  failed  to  appear,  Rama,  with  his 
hand,  scooped  up  a  little  sand  from  the  seashore, 
and  fashioned  an  idol.  The  spot  whence  the  sand 


Walkeshwar.  187 

was  dug  at  once  became  a  deep  pool,  that  is  still 
in  existence  ;  and  a  village  springing  up  around 
this  wonderful  idol,  was  called  Walkeshwar,  i.  e., 
"  The  god  of  the  sands."  The  pool  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  a  spacious  square,  completely  sur- 
rounded by  temples ;  while  the  water,  fifty  yards 
below  the  level,  is  reached  by  flights  of  stone 
steps,  that  are  always  thronged  by  crowds 
of  men  and  women,  anxiously  pressing  for- 
ward to  reach  the  brink  of  the  sacred  pool. 
Some  kneel  on  the  steps  in  contemplation ;  others 
plunge  in,  or  sprinkle  their  bodies  with  the  holy 
water ;  and  all  are  repeating  prayers  and  passages 
of  the  sacred  books.  Brahmins,  and  devotees  of 
various  orders,  ask  alms,  and  parade  their  religious 
creeds,  while  soine  of  the  followers  of  Krishna, 
under  his  most  shameful  form,  elbow  their  way 
through  the  crowd,  clothed  in  characteristic  garb, 
ready  .for  the  perpetration  of  the  most  infamous 
vices.  The  temples  that  surround  the  pool  are  of 
great  antiquity,  and  their  columns  are  covered 
with  graceful  sculptures.  The  spires,  too,  are  of 
wondrous  beauty,  but  the  effect  is  injured  by  their 
diminutive  size.  Beyond  Walkeshwar,  on  the 
highest  point  of  the  road  that  passes  along  the 


188  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

crest  of  Malabar  Hill,  is  the  "  Tower  of  Silence," 
where  the  Parsees  deposit  their  dead ;  *  and  beyond 
the  hill  to  the  northward  is  Bycullah,  another 
great  suburb  of  Bombay,  marshy,  gloomy  and  in- 
salubrious, but  densely  populated  by  Parsees,  half- 
castes,  and  the  poorest  class  of  Europeans. 

In  the  rear  of  Bycullah  rise  the  hills  of  Maza- 
gon,  a  quaint  sort  of  Portuguese  settlement,  where 
many  descendants  of  the  old  colonists  have  taken 
up  their  abode,  and  intermarrying  with  the  natives 
of  the  country,  their  manners,  religion,  dress  and 
appearance  have  become  largely  modified  thereby. 
Yet  they  retain  the  name  of  Portuguese  Christians. 
Their  very  peculiar  dress  is  of  the  European  order, 
with  none  of  the  Asiatic  grace  or  adaptation  to 
climate.  Their  especial  mania  seems  to  be  for  the 
black  silk  hat,  a  specimen  of  which,  though  in 
ever  so  dilapidated  a  condition,  often  lacking  both 
nap  and  brim,  must  be  worn  by  every  man  of 
them. 

The  soil  of  this  portion  of  the  island  is  ex- 
tremely fertile  ;  and  trees,  shrubs  and  every  kind 
of  vegetation  is  of  the  rankest  growth.  The 
climate  is  correspondingly  unhealthy,  and  amid  the 

•As  elsewhere  explained  under  the  head  of  "Ceremonies  for  the  Dead." 


JUGGLERS.     (See  page  156). 


Bombay.  191 

thick  jungly  growth,  venomous  serpents  and 
snakes  of  many  varieties  abound,  often  lying  hid- 
den within  the  petals  of  the  brightest  and  most 
beauteous  flowers. 

At  the  very  extremity  of  Mazagon,  is  the 
superb  palace  of  Sir  Jamsetjee  Jejeebhoy,  who 
was  the  wealthiest  Parsee  merchant  in  Bombay, 
and  the  first  East  Indian  who  ever  received  knight- 
hood at  the  hands  of  a  British  Sovereign.  The 
palace  is  built  in  pure  Gothic  style,  and  was  be- 
queathed by  Sir  Jamsetjee,  at  his  death,  to  the 
city  of  Bombay,  to  be  used  as  a  hospital  for  the 
sick  of  all  nations  without  distinction  of  race  or 
creed.  In  front  of  this  palace  hospital  the  Eng- 
lish have  erected  a  handsome  statue  of  the  noble 
donor,  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  this  munifi- 
cent charity. 

These  various  "  quarters "  and  "  suburbs  "  to- 
gether constitute  the  noble  city  of  Bombay,  which 
contains  a  population  of  eight  hundred  thousand, 
of  whom  eight  thousand  are  Europeans,  thirty 
thousand  Parsees,  one  hundred  and  twenty  thous- 
and Mohammedans,  and  the  residue  of  vari- 
ous Hindu  races.  Prominent  among  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  city  is  the  "  Royal  Asiatic 


192  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

Society,"  devoted  to  the   promotion  of    Oriental 
learning. 

During  the  years  1863-1865,  when  the  late 
civil  war  in  our  country  was  at  its  height,  events 
occurred  in  Bombay  that  raised  that  city  to  the 
very  summit  of  commercial  prosperity ;  but,  only 
to  plunge  her  into  the  depths  of  a  great  commer- 
cial crisis,  from  which  she  has  even  yet  scarcely 
recovered.  By  the  disturbed  state  of  affairs  in  the 
United  States,  Europe  was  for  the  time  deprived 
of  the  cotton  that  was  the  one  element  most  nec- 
essary to  her  industrial  existence  ;  and  India  had, 
by  most  noteworthy  efforts,  been  able  to  step  into 
the  place  thus  made  vacant.  She  was  already  pre- 
pared to  supply  in  good  degree  the  means  of 
feeding  the  cotton  manufactories  of  the  world ; 
and  Bombay  merchants,  seizing  upon  the  great 
commercial  advantages  afforded  by  their  city,  had 
attracted  to  it  the  entire  trade  in  India  cottons, 
making  themselves  the  sole  arbiters  of  this  impor- 
tant branch  of  Indian  trade.  Even  before  this, 
the  trade  of  Bombay  had  been  enormous;  and 
now  that  she  had  suddenly  become  the  emporium 
of  all  the  cotton  of  India,  the  elation  of  her  many 
rich  capitalists  led  them  into  the  wildest  specula- 


Cotton  Speculation.  193 

tions.  Deeming  the  reconstruction  of  the  United 
States  an  impossibility,  they  prophesied  for  their 
city  a  future  of  commercial  eclat  that  no  combi- 
nation of  circumstances  could  possibly  reverse. 
All  sorts  of  speculations  were  entered  upon,  all 
available  funds  invested,  and  the  entire  com- 
munity were  drawn  into  the  wild  schemes,  in 
which  each  saw  for  himself  untold  wealth  and 
the  most  encouraging  openings  for  future  opera- 
tions. Gigantic  companies  were  formed  to  develop 
resources  that  had  already  reached  their  utmost 
capacity  for  development.  Projects  were  set  on 
foot  to  enlarge  the  Bombay  Island,  by  reclaiming 
from  the  sea  the  region  known  as  "  Back  Bay  ;  " 
many  new  Banks  were  formed ;  and  not  only  mer- 
chants, but  officers,  public  functionaries,  even 
ladies,  and  subordinates  on  small  pay  —  all  were 
drawn  into  the  vortex,  expecting  to  realize  fabu- 
lous fortunes;  when,  with  the  news  of  General 
Lee's  surrender,  and  the  establishment  of  peace, 
a  crash  came,  and  wide-spread  ruin  fell  upon  all  the 
speculators.  The  strongest  houses  shared  the  fate 
of  the  rest,  and  even  the  Bank  of  Bombay  was 
compelled  temporarily  to  suspend.  The  exalta- 
tion had  been  unprecedently  rapid,  and  the  fall 
H.  I.-13 


194  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

was  sudden  and  terrible.  But  a  lesson  of  pru- 
dence was  learned,  and  now,  with  firmer  footing, 
and  broader  and  deeper  foundations,  the  queenly 
city  of  Bombay  once  again  begins  her  onward 
career  as  the  commercial  metropolis  of  India. 

Surat,  the  name  of  which  signifies  "the  good 
city,"  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  ports  of  Western 
India.  The  high,  thick  walls  that  form  the  ram- 
parts of  the  city  are  still  called  Alampanah, 
which  means,  "Protector  of  the  Land,"  though 
they  look  too  dilapidated  to  be  very  much  of  a 
safeguard.  They  are,  however,  strengthened  by 
numerous  round  towers,  and  form  a  circuit  of 
about  six  miles.  It  is  a  busy,  enterprising  town, 
whose  people  seem  not  inclined  to  be  idle.  The 
bazaars  abound  in  beautiful  and  costly  wares, 
especially  the  various  vessels  and  ornaments  of 
wrought  iron,  inlaid  with  gold  and  silver,  for 
which  Surat  is  noted,  the  art  having  come  down 
to  her  from  a  remote  antiquity.  The  city  is 
beautifully  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  majestic 
Taptee,  with  every  facility  for  a  large  trade. 

Broach,  about  sixty  miles  north  of  Surat,  has 
long  been  famous  for  its  Chandi  Musjid,  "  Silver 
Mosque."  It  contains  the  mausoleums  of  the 


Callian.  195 

Nawabs ;  and  one  of  them,  being  covered  with 
plates  of  silver,  has  given  name  to  the  edifice. 
Many  of  the  other  sarcophagi  are  of  white  marble, 
beautifully  carved,  and  are  placed  beneath  superb 
canopies  of  embroidered  velvet. 

Callian,  the  ancient  capital  of  Concon,  was  long 
one  of  the  first  commercial  ports  on  the  west  of 
India  ;  and  tradition  has  brought  down  even  to 
our  own  day  marvellous  accounts  of  the  wealth 
and  splendor  it  attained  under  the  Solauki  dynasty. 
Its  palaces  and  monuments  furnished  themes  for 
poets  and  novelists ;  and  a  writer  in  the  "  Ratan 
Mala,"  a  famous  Hindu  poem  of  the  seventh 
century,  thus  immortalizes  the  grand  old  metropo- 
lis :  "•  The  sun  alternately  passes  six  months  of 
the  year  in  the  north,  and  six  months  in  the 
south,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  being  able  to  com- 
pare the  marvellous  capital  of  Ceylon  with  the 
superb  city  of  Callian."  It  now,  however,  retains 
little  trace  of  the  royal  grandeur  of  its  palmy 
days,  save  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  temples  and 
palaces;  its  present  position  being  that  of  an  Eng- 
lish provincial  town,  with  the  ordinary  routine  of 
"  reduced  "  greatness.  But  all  around  the  sub- 
urbs, half-hidden  by  sand  and  jungle-grass,  lie 


196  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

fragments  of  columns  of  exquisite  beauty,  curi- 
ously-carved lintels,  bas-reliefs,  and  sculptures  in 
endless  variety,  where  may  be  read  the  mournful 
story  of  the  past.  These  ruins,  furnish  material 
enough  to  enrich  half  a  dozen  "  collections  "  of 
Hindu  antiquities,  or  form  the  basis  of  a  museum. 
The  grand  old  temple  of  Ambernath — grand 
and  magnificent  even  in  ruins  —  cannot  fail  to  in- 
terest with  its  minute  and  exquisitely-wrought 
sculptures,  all  executed  with  a  delicacy  of  touch 
and  a  lavishness  of  adornment  unknown  among 
other  races. 

Poonah,  situated  upon  the  banks  of  the  Moota, 
stands  in  the  centre  of  a  broad  plain  that  stretches 
out,  almost  treeless,  to  the  blue  mountains  of  Sattara. 
It  was  once  the  capital  of  the  Southern  Mahratta 
country,  and  the  residence  of  the  Peishwahs, 
though  it  now  belongs  to  the  English,  and  is  in- 
cluded in  the  Bombay  Presidency.  The  town  is 
still  essentially  native  in  its  character  and  sur- 
roundings, a  very  large  proportion  of  the  inhab- 
itants being  Hindus;  and  the  streets  swarming 
with  well-fed  Brahmins,  and  half-naked  religious 
devotees  who  live  by  charity  —  the  former,  neatly- 
clothed  impersonations  of  self-satisfied  ease ;  and 


Poonah.  197 

the  latter,  filthy  and  repulsive  to  the  last  extreme. 
Through  the  streets  roam  unmolested,  as  in  every 
native  Indian  town,  multitudes  of  sacred  oxen, 
that,  as  representatives  of  deity,  are  permitted  to 
enter  the  bazaars  and  shops,  eat  at  the  stalls,  and 
even  to  block  up  the  streets,  if  they  feel  so  inclined. 
The  town  is  divided  into  seven  quarters,  called 
after  the  seven  days  of  the  week ;  and  the  houses, 
standing  in  the  midst  of  pretty  gardens,  are  built 
in  the  picturesque  Hindu  style,  with  tiled  roofs, 
wooden  gables,  and  panels  painted  in  bright  colors, 
representing  flowers  and  animals,  with  various 
mythological  figures  and  scenes.  Several  palaces 
still  remain  ;  among  them  a  summer  residence  of 
the  Peishwahs,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
celebrated  Hira  Baugh^  "  Garden  of  Diamonds." 
In  the  Boudhwa,  or  Wednesday  quarter,  there  are 
many  ancient  houses,  formerly  occupied  by  nobles 
of  the  Peish\vahrs  court ;  and  castle-like  abodes 
with  thick  walls,  Icop-holed  windows,  and  great 
ponderous  doors,  that  remind  one  of  the  feudal 
castles  of  Europe  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Very  few  of  these  ancient  dwellings 
are  now  occupied,  for  though  many  wealthy 
Mahrattas  return  here  to  enjoy  the  riches  accu- 


198  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

mulated  elsewhere,  they,  as  a  rule,  prefer  the 
more  modern  and  cheerful-looking  mansions  with 
which  the  town  abounds.  Among  the  celebrities 
of  Poonah,  is  the  famous  temple  of  Parvati>  which 
gives  name  to  the  lovely  hill  that  overlooks  the 
Hira  Baugh.  A  flight  of  handsome  steps  leads 
from  the  Peishwah's  summer  pavilion  up  to  the 
front  of  this  temple,  on  the  very  summit.  The 
temple  contains  several  exquisite  statuettes  of 
Parvati ;  but  that  which  attracts  most  admiration 
is  a  massive  silver  image  of  Siva,  holding  on  his 
knees  the  statues  of  his  wife  and  child,  Parvati 
and  the  young  Ganesa,  executed  in  pure  gold. 
Large,  costly  sapphires  form  the  eyes  of  these 
famous  images,  and  their  altars  are  piled  perpetu- 
ally with  the  richest  oblations. 

At  the  junction  of  the  Moota  and  Moola  rivers, 
is  the  Sangam,  where  the  Hindus  burn  their  dead. 
There  are  also,  on  the  banks  of  both  rivers,  numer- 
ous small  kiosks  or  pleasure-houses,  and  many 
stately  cenotaphs,  designed  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  departed  great  ones,  though  their 
ashes  do  not  repose  beneath  the  monuments. 
These  kiosks  are,  nearly  every  evening,  the  scenes 
of  mirth,  music,  and  feasting ;  inappropriate  as  to 


NATIVE   OF   MADRAS. 


200  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

us  seems  the  locality,  under  the  very  shadow  of  the 
memorials  of  the  dead.  This  is  quite  in  accord 
with  the  creed  of  the  Hindu,  who  takes  no  gloomy 
view  of  death,  but  regards  this  change  of  worlds  not 
as  a  cessation  of  being,  but  merely  a  passage  from 
one  state  ol  existence  to  another,  one  of  the  many, 
perhaps  thousands  of  the  lives  to  be  lived  ere  his 
destiny  is  completed  ;  and  as  each  successive  turn 
of  the  wheel  opens  before  him  the  vista  of  another 
change,  whether  for  better  or  for  worse,  he  knows 
not,  and  does  not  trouble  himself  to  inquire. 

The  English  Government  House  at  Poonah  is 
the  stately  palace  of  Granesh  Khind.  It  is  an 
imposing,  marble  structure,  with  a  noble  tower, 
and  is  built  on  a  commanding  site,  with  a  magnifi- 
cent view  of  the  varied  Deccan  scenery,  and  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  conservatories  worthy  of 
an  imperial  palace.  It  was  erected  by  Sir  Bartle 
Frere,  while  Governor  of  Bombay,  at  a  cost  of 
$875,000.  This  was  deemed  by  the  English 
Home  Government  an  extravagant  outlay,  espe- 
cially as  Poonah  is  not  the  head-quarters  of  his 
Excellency,  but  only  an  outside  station  which  he 
visits  occasionally.  The  erection  of  this  superb 
marble  palace  was,  at  the  time,  quoted  by  Mr. 


';"• .  •;•  ": v,s-is;;c?v--- 
;...;•-  .'  ;  ,; ' "•  '^^ 


YOUNG    HINDOO    WOMAN. 


202  Presidency  of  Bombay. 

Fawcett  in  the  House,  as  "  a  t}rpical  instance  of 
the  extravagance  and  insubordination  of  the  gov- 
ernors of  Bombay."  To  which  implied  censure 
Sir  Bartle  Frere  replied,  that  he  had  built  a  very  fine 
dwelling  for  future  governors,  that  would  be  more 
regularly  occupied  than  that  at  Bombay  had  ever 
been  ;  that  he  acted  within  his  legal  powers,  and 
was  not  insubordinate,  and  that  he  had  not,  when 
he  retired  from  the  Government  of  Bomba}',  ex- 
pended all  the  money  at  his  disposal ;  and  lastly, 
that  Poonah  would  be  thenceforth,  de  facto  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Bombay  Presidency. 


'''*' 


^^&g>' 

<••-•— . ^jn^jj^  v 
;^^;.7{\V  '^^>S 


CHAPTER  V. 

PROVINCES    AND    PEOPLE. 

CHITTAGONG  is  a  district  of  British  India 
lying  beyond  the  Ganges,  but  included  in 
the  Presidency  of  Bengal.  It  is  one  hundred  and 
eighty -five  miles  long,  and  an  average  of  sixty  to 
eighty  in  length.  Its  chief  river,  the  Chittagong, 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Kurrumfoolee  and 
the  Chingree,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  A  large  portion  of  the  surface  is 
covered  by  mountains,  and  there  are  several  sum- 
mits that  range  from  four  thousand  to  eight  thous- 
and feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  soil  of  the 
plains  and  valleys  is  very  fertile,  yielding  readily, 
with  little  labor,  rice,  oats,  hemp,  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  indigo,  betel-nut,  mustard  and  ginger.  The 

aboriginal  inhabitants  resemble  the  Burmese  and 
205 


206  Provinces  and  People. 

Bengalese ;  but  at  least  two-thirds  of  them  have 
been  proselyted  to  the  Mohammedan  faith. 

Chittagong  seems  to  have  belonged  originally  to 
Tiperah,  and  to  have  become  a  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Bengal  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
During  the  wars  between  the  Monguls  and 
Afghans,  Chittagong  was  held  by  Aracan  ;  but  it 
was  captured  by  Aurungzebe  about  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  In  1760,  it  was  ceded  to 
the  East  India  Company  by  the  nawab  of  Bengal, 
and  has  since  been  under  British  control. 

Chittagong  or  Islamabad,  the  capital,  is  situated 
on  and  among  a  group  of  small  and  abrupt  hills, 
some  of  which  form  pleasant  villa  residences; 
and  command  fine  sea-views.  The  natives  live 
along  the  valleys,  in  small  cottages  of  bamboo, 
embowered  in  groves  of  fruit  trees,  with  neat  veg- 
etable gardens  spread  out  in  the  rear.  Chittagong 
was  once  a  place  of  some  importance  in  commerce 
and  ship-building,  but  it  has  declined  rapidly  in 
consequence  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the  climate, 
and  its  ship-building  interests  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  Maulmein,  of  the  Tenasserim  Provinces. 
These  Provinces  were  formerly  sections  of  the 
Burmese  Empire,  but  were  annexed  to  the  Anglo' 


Aracan.  207 

Indian  possessions  in  1826,  and  are  now  governed 
by  a  Commissioner,  with  the  usual  staff  of  Euro- 
pean and  native  officers,  and  they  constitute  one 
of  the  ten  political  districts  of  British  •  India,  ex- 
tending from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  west,  to 
the  Mountains  of  Siam  on  the  east  in  length 
about  five  hundred  miles,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  fifty  miles.  The  country  is  divided  into  three 
provinces,  Amherst,  Tavoy  and  Mergui,  with  their 
capital  at  Maulmein. 

Aracan  is  a  division  of  British  India,  including 
the  districts  of  Akyab,  Sandoway,  and  Ramree. 
It  has  an  area  of  twenty-three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  five 
hundred  thousand.  The  country  abounds  in  hills, 
with  numerous  intervening  plains  and  valleys  of 
great  fertility,  counterbalanced  by  dense  jungles, 
and  pestilential  marshes  that  render  most  portions 
of  the  country  extremely  unhealthy  for  Euro- 
peans. Aracan  is  rich  in  salt,  timber,  coal,  and 
petroleum,  and  produces  fine  crops  of  rice  and 
tobacco.  Rudimentary  education  is  very  generally 
diffused,  nearly  all  the  people  being  able  to  read 
and  write.  This  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Burmese  in  1783,  and  by  the  British  in  1824.  Its 


208  Provinces  and  People. 

capital  is  Akyab,  pleasantly  located,  but  with  an 
unhealthy  climate  that  repels  immigration  ;  and 
the  coast  has  few  harbors  to  invite  commerce. 

Assam  is  a  province  of  the  Bengal  Presidency, 
lying  between  two  mountain  ranges,  offshoots  of 
the  Himalayas,  in  the  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Hindustan.  It  was  once  governed  by  a  series 
of  kings,  concerning  whom  little  is  known  until 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  Mogul  Em- 
perors endeavored  to  annex  this  country  to  their 
dominions.  The  Assamese  bravely  and  successfully 
repelled  the  invasion  ;  but  from  about  that  period 
internal  dissensions  arose,  and  the  country  became 
a  prey  to  civil  war,  declining  gradually  in  power 
until  1770,  when  the  British  troops  interfered  in  a 
conspiracy  against  the  Rajah,  and  annexed  a  por- 
tion of  the  province  as  compensation  for  having 
acted  as  umpires  between  the  Rajah  and  his  rebel- 
lious subjects.  During  the  war  with  Burmah,  in 
1826,  the  British  took  full  possession  and  annexed 
the  whole  of  Assam  to  their  Indian  possessions, 
for  reasons  that  to  themselves  at  least  were  fully 
satisfactory.  This  entire  country,  between  the 
mountain  ranges  that  enclose  it  on  three  sides,  con- 
sists of  a  long,  level  plain,  studded  occasionally 


Assam.  209 

with  small  hills.  It  is  watered  by  the  Brahma- 
putra and  sixty  smaller  streams,  so  that  Assam  is 
supposed  to  contain  more  rivers  than  any  other 
equal  extent  of  territory  in  the  world.  The  name 
of  the  Brahmaputra  is  derived  from  two  Sanscrit 
words  that  mean  "  The  Creator  "  and  "  The  Son," 
and  these  Assamese  claim  not  only  that  their  great 
river  is  the  special  favorite  of  their  gods,  but  also, 
that  they  are  themselves  the  chief  people  of  the 
earth,  having  derived  their  origin  from  the  Hindu 
god  Indra,  who  presides  over  the  atmosphere,  and 
to  whom  the  other  gods  are  subordinate.  The  soil 
of  Assam  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  one  of  the 
pleasantest  and  most  salubrious  in  India.  The 
country  is  rich  in  mineral  products,  consisting  of 
coal,  iron,  gold  dust,  and  petroleum.  The  tea- 
plant  is  indigenous  here,  and  is  extensively  culti- 
vated under  the  auspices  of  the  English  "  Assam 
Tea  Company."  The  country  has  about  eighteen 
thousand  acres  of  land  under  cultivation,  planted 
with  tea-shrubs,  that  produce  an  excellent  article, 
very  favorably  known  in  commerce.  Sugar, 
tobacco  and  wheat  are  also  grown  ;  and  silk  is 
produced  to  a  limited  extent.  The  people  are 

small  in  stature,  though  lithe  and  active,  and  in 
H.  1—14 


210  Provinces  and  People. 

person  resemble  the  Bengalese.  They  live  in  huts 
made  of  mats  and  bamboo-poles,  are  rather  indo- 
lent in  disposition,  and  lack  energy,  but  are  gener- 
ally kind  in  their  families  and  hospitable  to 
strangers.  The  prevailing  religion  is  Brahminism, 
but  there  are  also  many  Mohammedans. 

The  Principality  of  Kishengurh  is  one  of  the 
smallest  independent  states  in  Rajputana,  and  was 
for  a  long  time,  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Marwar. 
In  1613,  King  Oudey  Singh  gave  it  as  an  appanage 
to  his  son,  Kishan  Singh,  who  established  himself 
in  the  town  that  he  called  by  his  own  name,  and 
which  retains  this  cognomen  still.  When  the 
English  began  to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  Raj- 
putana, this  little  State  at  once  acknowledged 
their  supremacy,  and  has  since  continued  under 
British  protection.  Kishengurh  is  enclosed  by  the 
kingdoms  of  Marwar,  Mey  war,  and  Jeypore,  and  the 
province  of  Ajmere.  The  sand  from  the  neighbor- 
ing desert  has  continued  its  encroachments,  till  it 
now  covers  the  entire  surface  to  the  depth  of 
several  feet,  rendering  the  land  barren  and  worth- 
less, except  for  a  short  period  immediately  after 
the  rains.  But  the  country  has  valuable  salt- 
works and  mines,  that  yield  the  Rajah  an  annual 


Kishengurh.  213 

revenue  of  about  $300,000,  and  also  afford  ample 
employment  to  his  subjects.  The  capital,  a  city 
of  about  sixteen  thousand  inhabitants,  is  built  on 
a  high  hill,  and  overlooks  the  pretty,  picturesque 
Lake  Gondola.  It  has  a  citadel  on  the  very  sum- 
mit of  the  hill,  with  a  double  line  of  ramparts ; 
and  all  the  approaches  to  the  town,  even  the 
streets,  are  steep  and  precipitous  enough  to  serve 
as  fortifications.  Some  portions  of  the  ramparts 
are  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  and  overlook 
the  country  around.  On  one  side  is  the  town, 
with  its  temples,  palaces,  and  gardens  radiant  in 
their  ripe,  floral  beauty  ;  and  on  the  other,  is  seen 
the  Lake  dotted  with  tiny  islands,  from  which 
arise  pretty,  picturesque  kiosks  and  pavilions  of 
ever  varying  forms. 

The  present  Rajah  Adhiraj  Purtwee  Singh,  is  a 
noble  specimen  of  the  Rajput  race,  fine-looking, 
dignified  and  self-contained,  with  fierce  black  eyes, 
and  the  air  of  an  emperor  to  the  purple  born. 

Cashmere,  lying  in  the  extreme  north-western 
section  of  India,  is  almost  enclosed  by  the  ranges 
of  the  Karakorum  and  Himalaya  mountains  that 
separate  it  from  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  the  British 
districtsof  Lahoul  and  Spiti.  Its  area  is  estimated 


214  Provinces  and  People. 

at  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles, 
and  includes  within  its  limits  the  celebrated  vale 
of  Cashmere,  the  provinces  of  Jamoo,  Balti, 
Ladakh,  Chamba,  and  some  other  portions  of  ter- 
ritory. The  "  Valley  of  Cashmere,"  so  often  the 
theme  of  poets  and  novelists,  is  of  an  irregular 
oval  form,  shut  in  by  lofty  mountains  that  securely 
shelter  it  from  adverse  breezes ;  and  though  some 
of  the  summits  are  crowned  with  perpetual  snow, 
the  temperature  of  the  valley  is  mild  and  equable, 
and  the  climate  salubrious.  This  valley  is  nearly 
six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level  ;  and  the 
alluvial  plain  that  forms  its  bottom  is  seventy 
miles  long  and  forty  broad.  It  may  be  entered  by 
many  passes,  eleven  of  which  are  practicable  for 
equestrians,  and  several  for  wheeled  vehicles.  The 
highest,  including  the  Pir  Panjal,  have  an  elevation 
of  twelve  thousand  feet.  The  Jhylum,  a  tributary 
of  the  Indus,  is  the  principal  river,  and  flows 
through  the  Baramula  Pass,  receiving  many  tribu- 
taries from  the  mountains  before  reaching  the 
Punjaub.  Scattered  through  the  valley  are  sev- 
eral small  lakes,  which  serve  abundantly  to  irrigate 
the  land,  which  is  thus  rendered  fertile,  and  pro- 
duces often  from  thirty  to  sixty  fold.  Rice  is  the 


The    Vale  of  Cashmere.  215 

great  staple,  and  the  common  food  of  the  country  ; 
but  wheat,  barley,  maize,  buckwheat  and  tobacco 
are  also  cultivated,  and  esculent  vegetables  are 
good  and  abundant.  Among  the  fruits  are  those 
common  in  temperate  latitudes :  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  plums,  grapes  and  pom- 
egranates. Flowers  of  rare  beauty  and  fragrance 
abound,  especially  several  varieties  of  Cashmerian 
rose,  the  "  Mohur,"  "  Cloth  of  Gold,"  "  Empress/' 
and  others,  unsurpassed  in  the  whole  world  for 
delicacy  of  tint  and  rare  perfume.  The  groves 
of  chunars,  poplars  and  cedars,  with  which  the 
villages  are  adorned,  were  planted  in  the  times  of 
the  Mogul  Emperors,  by  imperial  edict,  and  still 
flourish  luxuriantly  in  this  favored  spot.  The 
Cashmerians  stand  preeminent  among  Indian  races 
for  physical  beauty.  The  men  are  tall,  robust  and 
athletic,  and  the  women  of  wondrous  beauty  of 
form,  and  surpassing  brilliancy  of  complexion. 
They  are  an  intelligent,  educated  people,  fond  of 
poetry,  and  full  of  life  and  spirit ;  but  have  the 
reputation  of  being  addicted  to  cunning  and  mi- 
truthfulness.  The  capital  is  Serin aghur  or  Cash- 
mere, and  the  other  towns  Islamabad,  Shupeyon, 
Pampur,  and  Sopur.  The  principal  manufactures 


216  Provinces  and  People. 

in  addition  to  the  famous  Cashmere  shawls,  are 
lacquered  ware  in  great  variety,  paper,  gun  and 
pistol  barrels,  and  attar  of   rose.     The  wool  for 
the   shawls   comes    originally    from    Tartary   and 
Thibet,  but  is  bleached,  spun  and  dyed  in  Cash- 
mere.    The  weaving  is  done  mainly  in  the  houses 
of  the  workmen,   after    patterns   furnished    them 
with  the  material.     Each  loom  produces  four  or 
five  shawls  a  year,  of   the  medium  grade ;  but  & 
single  shawl  of  the  best  quality  and  most  intricate 
pattern   sometimes   keeps   four   or   five   workmen 
constantly  busy  for  one  or  two  years.     The  num- 
ber of  looms  employed  is  estimated  at  about  six- 
teen thousand.     The  weavers  are  brought  up  to 
the  trade  from  infancy,  and  spend  their  whole  lives 
at   the  work,  becoming   constantly  more  expert. 
Besides  this,  there  have  been  in  families  certain  se- 
crets of  skill  in  the  weaving  that  are  transmitted  as 
heirlooms,  and  not  communicated  to  others.    But  it 
is  said  that  the  brilliant  tints,  and  some  of  the  pecul 
iar  shades,  are  due  to  the  water  and  atmosphere  o» 
the  country,  and  cannot  be  produced  elsewhere 
Handsome   as  are   the    French   Cashmere    shawl 
manufactured  in  Paris,  Lyons  and  other  cities,  the 
very  best  are  easily  distinguished  by  experts,  fronj 


Cashmere.  217 

the  genuine  India  article.  The  Maharajah  of 
Cashmere  has  full  control  of  the  exports  of 
shawls,  sending  through  his  own  agents  to  various 
European  and  Asiatic  markets. 

Cashmere  was  conquered  by  the  Mogul  Emperor, 
Akbar,  in  1587  ;  by  the  Afghans  in  1752 ,  and  by 
the  Seikhs  in  1819.  It  was,  in  1846,  included  in 
the  territory  transferred  by  the  Seikhs  to  the  Eng- 
lish, under  the  treaty  of  Lahore,  and  was  immedi- 
ately sold  by  its  new  owners  to  Gholab  Singh,  for 
the  sum  of  $3,750,000 ;  but,  by  the  compact 
between  the  Maharajah  and  the  British  Govern- 
ment, the  Rajah  is  to  be  assisted  in  defending  his 
territory  against  his  enemies,  and  British  supremacy 
is  to  be  acknowledged.  Cashmere  suffered  from 
an  earthquake  in  1828  that  destroyed  twelve  hun- 
dred of  her  people  ;  only  two  months  later  Asiatic 
cholera  carried  off  one  hundred  thousand  in  forty 
days ;  and  in  1833,  famine  and  pestilence  com- 
mitted still  more  frightful  ravages.  Famines  that 
have  occurred  during  the  past  five  years  have 
again  made  terrible  havoc  among  the  Cashmer- 
ians  until  her  population  which,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  numbered  eight  hundred 
thousand,  has  been  reduced  to  less  than  half  that 


218  Provinces  and  People. 

number  by  these  various  casualties  of  pestilence, 
famine  and  earthquake. 

Afghanistan  possesses  almost  every  variety  of 
soil  and  climate  ;  upon  the  summits  of  the  Hindu 
Koorsh  snow  lies  unbroken  all  the  year  round  ; 
European  fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown  on  the 
hill-side  terraces  seven  hundred  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  while  on  the  sandy  plains,  dates  and 
other  palms  flourish  luxuriantly  ;  and  sugar,  cotton 
and  rice  are  grown  in  the  valleys.  The  country 
abounds  in  mineral  wealth.  Its  mines  of  iron, 
copper,  lead,  salt,  sulphur,  saltpetre  and  alum 
being  especially  rich.  The  two  chief  rivers  are 
the  Helmund  and  Cabul ;  and  the  four  most  im- 
portant cities,  Cabul  the  capital,  Herat,  Guzin  and 
Candahar.  The  Afghans  are  a  brave,  hardy  race  ; 
in  religion  Sunnite  Mohammedans,  but  very  toler- 
ant towards  both  Christians  and  Pagans. 

It  is  only  since  the  recent  war  with  Afghanis- 
tan that  any  portion  of  this  great  country  could 
be  properly  reckoned  as  a  constituent  of  British 
India.  But  since  the  English  are  to  "  control  the 
foreign  relations  of  Afghanistan,"  and  to  "  have  as 
granaries  the  great  Kurrum  and  Khost  Vallies," 
besides  holding  other  important  territory,  formerly 


Bundelcund,  219 

belonging  to  the  Afghans,  some  description  of  the 
country  comes  properly  within  the  scope  of  the 
present  work.* 

Bundelcund  is  the  mountainous  region  between 
the  Vindhy  ah  table-land  and  the  Jumna,  and  from  the 
river  Scinde  on  the  northwest  to  the  Tousa  on 
the  east.  The  whole  country  is  intersected  with 
small  chains  of  mountains,  and  through  the  val- 
leys flow  small  rivers,  all  of  which  fall  into  the 
Jumna.  The  principal  of  these  streams  are  the 
Betowah,  Dhesan  and  Cane.  The  northern  por- 
tion of  Bundelcund  contains  well-watered  and 
thickly-populated  plains,  but  the  remainder  is 

* 

almost  unbroken  forests,  said  to  be  the  finest  in 
India.  High  above  the- sea-level,  well-watered  and 
near  the  tropics,  they  produce  the  best  woods  of 
both  Northern  and  Southern  India  ;  the  mhowa, 
catechu,  bur,  tulip-wood,  tamarind,  teak,  cedar, 
and  many  others.  Such  is  Buudelcund  of  the 
present ;  but  the  past,  with  its  ruins  of  cities  and 
palaces,  its  vast  dykes  and  templed  hills,  has  also 
a  history. 

Three  centuries  before  our  era  this  mountain 
principality  was  a  component  of  the  Empire  of 

*  Uriel  details  of  ths  history  of  Afghanistan  will  be  found  in  chapter  XXIV. 


220  Provinces  and  People. 

Bindousara,  and  was  nearly  associated  with  Mag- 
adda.  Huang  Tcheng,  the  great  Chinese  traveller 
of  the  seventh  century,  describes  a  journey  through 
Bundelcund,  then  known  as  Janjavati,  and  a  "  pow- 
erful and  prosperous  kingdom."  During  the 
eighth  century  it  was  invaded  by  the  Rajput  tribes 
of  the  Chandelaclan,  who  were  in  turn  displaced 
by  the  Chohans  of  Delhi,  in  the  tenth  century. 
Then  overrun  by  the  Mussulman  invasion,  Bundel- 
cund ceased  to  have  a  political  existence,  and 
became  a  place  of  refuge  for  all  the  princes  dispos- 
sessed by  the  Tartars.  Later,  it  was  split  up  into 
various  small  principalities,  governed  by  bandit 
chiefs,  who  lived  by  pillage  and  plunged  the 
country  into  ruin  In  the  fourteenth  century, 
Hurdeo  Singh,  a  Rajput  prince  of  the  Gurwha 
tribe,  was  expelled  from  the  Kshatriya  caste  for 
marrying  a  Bourdi  slave-girl,  and  left  the  Rajputs 
to  go  and  reside  at  the  court  of  one  of  the  smaller 
sovereigns  of  Central  India,  where  a  young  family 
grew  up  around  him.  In  process  of  time  the 
king's  son  became  enamoured  of  Hurdeo's  beauti- 
ful daughter,  and  asked  her  in  marriage  of  her 
father.  Hurdeo  gave  his  consent,  on  condition 
that  the  king  and  his  whole  court  would  be  present 


HINDOO   WOMEN   OF   BOMBAY    IN    CEREMONIAL   DRESS.  221 


Assassination.  223 

at  a  banquet  to  be  prepared  by  Hurdeo's  own 
hand,  thus  forfeiting,  as  he  himself  had  done,  the 
right  to  the  rank  Kshatriya.  From  affection  for 
his  son  the  aged  king  consented  to  set  aside  his 
scruples,  and  on  the  nuptial  day  all  the  court 
were  seated  at  the  banquet  around  Hurdeo's 
princely  board.  There,  in  magnificent  goblets  of 
silver  and  gold,  drinks  containing  opium  were 
served  to  the  guests  who,  being  thus  deprived  of 
the  power  of  resistance,  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
Hurdeo's  hired  assassins,  who  stood  concealed, 
each  man  armed  with  his  weapon,  behind  the  tap- 
estry at  the  upper  end  of  the  hall.  The  Gurwha 
having  thus  gained  possession  of  this  throne,  soon 
made  himself  master  of  all  the  surrounding 
country;  and,  with  his  sons  and  the  numerous  ad- 
herents he  had  enlisted  in  his  cause,  he  formed  a 
new  clan  known  thenceforward  as  the  Bourdilas, 
or  "  Sons  of  the  Slave  ;  "  thus  giving  the  country 
its  present  name  of  Boundilakund  or  Bundelcund. 
The  Bourdilas  still  claim  to  be  Rajputs ;  but  the 
other  tribes  of  Rajesthan  refuse  to  recognize  them  ; 
and  regarding  them  as  outcasts,  even  on  their  own 
showing,  will  have  no  association  with  them. 
They  seem  to  have  retained  the  physical  traits  of 


224  Provinces  and  People. 

their  Rajput  ancestor,  and  to  have  fallen  heir  to 
the  courage  of  his  race ;  but  they  inherit  also  the 
cruelty  and  treachery  of  the  founder  of  the  Bour- 
dilas  clan,  and  "  False  as  a  Bourdila  "  has  come  to 
be  a  proverb  among  the  Rajputs.  The  other 
Hindu  races  regard  all  the  Bundelcund  tribes  as 
of  impure  blood ;  and  this  savage  country  has 
gradually  become  the  refuge  of  criminals  and  out- 
casts. Even  the  Brahmin  of  Bundelcund  eats 
mutton  and  drinks  intoxicating  liquors,  and  the 
land  has  become  noted  for  its  brigandism.  It  was 
in  these  sombre  forests  that  the  horrible  religion 
of  the  Thugs  was  born ;  upon  its  lofty  table-lands, 
formidable  insurgents  waged  a  terrible  warfare 
against  the  English  troops,  during  the  mutiny  of 
1857.  The  shocking  butchery  of  Jhansie  took  place 
within  its  borders ;  and  there  Nena  Saliib  took 
refuge  after  the  massacre  of  Cawnpore.  There, 
too,  for  years  flourished  the  Dacoits,  a  horde  of 
highway  robbers  and  assassins,  who  readily  affiliate 
with  the  barbarism  that  isolates  the  mountain  re- 
gion of  this  wild  country  from  the  other  portions 
of  India.  This  ancient  principality  has  of  late 
years  been  divided  by  the  English  into  the  dis- 
tricts of  Bandah,  Hummerpore,  Culpee,  Jaloon, 


THE   FESTIVAL   OF   THE    SERPENTS,   BOMBAY. 

.   H.  I— 15 


226  Provinces  and  People. 

Jaitpore,  Churgaon  and  Gurota,  besides  a  number 
of  native  states  and  jaghires  under  petty  Bourdilas 
chiefs.  The  chief  towns  are  Culpee,  Bandah, 
Jhansie,  Chutturpore,  Jaloon,  Callinger.  Into  its 
mountainous  regions,  and  the  portions  under 
native  control,  few  travellers  attempt  to  penetrate  ; 
and  they  are  among  the  least  known  sections  of 
the  Indian  Empire. 

Duttiah  is  the  capital  of  a  small  kingdom  of  the 
same  name  in  the  district  of  Bundelcund,  nearly 
midway  on  the  route  from  Agra  to  Sarigor.  The 
State  is  under  the  protection  of  the  English,  has  a 
territory  of  about  eight  hundred  and  fifty  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  rather  more  than  two 
hundred  thousand.  The  town  occupies  a  lovely, 
picturesque  position  among  a  whole  belt  of  lakes, 
hills  and  forests.  Above  the  red-tiled  roofs  of  its 
residences  rise  the  spires  of  many  temples ;  and 
standing  out  conspicuously  above  all,  are  two  huge 
square  buildings  crowned  with  domes  and  towers, 
and  readily  recognizable  as  the  abode  of  royalty. 
The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  wall,  thirty- 
seven  feet  high,  based  upon  rock,  and  strength- 
ened by  round  towers  built  into  the  wall,  access 
being  gained  by  fortified  gates,  each  of  which  has 


228  Provinces  and  People. 

its  guard-house  — this  barricade,  in  times  of  peace, 
being  rendered  necessary  by  the  wild  country 
around.  The  most  noticeable  features  of  the 
internal  arrangements  are  the  extreme  cleanliness 
and  excellent  condition  of  the  streets,  and  the 
many  little  running  streams  through  the  town. 
The  temples  are  numerous,  of  simple  construction, 
and  somewhat  peculiar  form,  consisting  usually  of 
a  square  chapel,  surmounted  by  a  high  steeple 
flanked  by  four  clock  towers.  Inside,  there  is  even 
greater  simplicity :  merely  painted  walls,  an  altar 
unadorned,  and  the  lingam  of  Iswara  —  the  mystic 
emblem  Siva. 

The  palace  erected  by  Birsing  Deo,  is  a  square 
of  buildings,  each  side  being  three  hundred  feet 
long,  and  nearly  one  hundred  feet  in  height ;  and 
the  pinnacle  of  the'  central  dome  towers  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  terrace. 
The  facade,  four  stories  high,  has  magnificent  bal- 
conies of  carved  stone.  The  whole  building  is  of 
granite,  and  constructed  upon  a  vaulted  terrace, 
the  arches  of  which  are  forty  feet  high.  The  first 
and  second  stories  have  no  court-yard,  but  the 
rooms  of  the  third  and  fourth  run  around  a  ter- 
race, while  on  a  level  with  the  second,  in  the 


Birsing-Deo.  229 

middle  of  this  court-yard  rises  a  square  tower 
divided  into  four  stories.  This  tower  supports  the 
central  dome,  and  contains  the  rooms  designed 
especially  for  the  private  apartments  of  the 
king.*  One  can  see  in  all  these  details  the  con- 

O 

stant  fear  of  assassination  under  which  these 
Indian  Princes  live,  even  in  times  of  peace,  and 
the  wonderful  ingenuity  displayed  in  constructing 
the  means  of  warding  off  danger.  Everything  is 
massive  and  strong,  displaying  the  great  genius  of 
King  Birsing  Deo,  and  the  guilty  fears  that  beset 
the  notorious  Bourdilas,  whose  very  name  has 
become  legendary.  The  enormous  proportions  of 
this  feudal  castle  unfit  it  for  ordinary  occupancy, 
especially  for  so  small  a  court  as  that  of  Duttiah  ; 
but  in  case  of  a  siege,  quite  a  large  garrison  could 
be  accommodated  here,  and  the  king  could  remain 
in  his  own  special  apartments  with  all  his  usual 
belongings,  and  even  his  ordinary  privacy,  with 
his  own  family  about  him,  and  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  his  soldiers  and  guards,  having  thus  the 
security  without  the  publicity  of  life  in  an  ordi- 
nary fort. 

*See   India  and  its  Native  Princes,  p.  319,  from  which  the  above  is  con- 
densed. 


230  Provinces  and  People. 

On  the  south  of  the  city  is  the  palace  in  present 
use  —  a  large,  many-storied  edifice,  built  in  a 
mixed  style  of  architecture.  In  front  of  the  pal- 
ace is  a  reservoir,  with  u  fine  fountain,  around 
which  eight  sculptured  elephants  continually  spout 
forth  copious  streams  of  clear  water. 

The  town  has  an  excellent  college,  founded  by 
the  present  sovereign,  giving  instruction  to  a  hun- 
dred non-resident  students  in  Persian,  Oorchoo, 
and  English,  besides  the  ordinary  course  in  Hindus- 
tanee.  The  Professors  belong  to  the  Benares 
University ;  and  the  college  has  the  reputation  of 
being  well-conducted,  and  the  discipline  excellent. 

Six  miles  northwest  of  Duttiah,  is  Mount  Son- 
naghur,  the  "  Golden  Mount,"  a  noted  place  of 
pilgrimage  for  the  Jains  of  Central  India.  Son- 
naghur  is  the  last  of  a  small  chain  of  hills,  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  that  rise  out  of  a 
vast  plain.  The  hills  form  pyramids  of  huge 
blocks  of  granite,  some  of  which  stand  upright, 
and  are  worshipped  by  the  people  as  natural  lin- 
gams.  A  little  village  runs  around  the  base  of  the 
rock,  but  the  sides  and  summits  of  every  hill  are 
crowned  with  temples  of  picturesque  beauty. 
There  are  about  eighty  in  all,  some  of  which  are 


PERSIANS    IN    BOMBAY. 


Dholepore.  233 

supposed  to  date  back  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  the  most  modern  to  the  sixteenth. 

From  a  distance  the  temples  seem  piled  one 
upon  another,  and  some  hanging,  as  it  were,  over 
the  precipice,  while  at  other  points  the  rocks  seem 
suspended  above  the  temples  and  ready  to  fall  and 
crush  them.  The  scene  is  all  the  more  grand  that 
there  is  not  a  tree  or  shrub  anywhere  in  the  vicin- 
ity —  nothing  to  break  the  solemn  grandeur  of  the 
imposing  view. 

The  precise  date  of  the  founding  of  the  native 
state  of  Dholepore  is  uncertain ;  though  it  is 
known  that  during  the  ninth  century  a  Rajput 
Prince,  named  Dhaula,  established  himself  on  the 
banks  of  the  Chumbul  and  built  a  fortress  that 
was  surrendered  to  Baber  in  1526. 

By  the  treaty  of  1806,  between  the  Maharajah 
of  Dholepore  and  the  English,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  king  should  retain  absolute  authority  over  his 
own  territory,  free  from  all  right  of  intervention 
on  the  part  of  the  English. 

Dholepore,  the  capital,  has  about  forty  thousand 
inhabitants ;  though  from  frequent  inundations  of 
the  river,  and  from  the  casualties  of  war,  the  city 
has  somewhat  declined  during  the  past  few  years. 


234  Provinces  and  People. 

The  city  is  about  thirty-six  miles  from  Agra.  It 
contains  in  addition  to  the  Maharajah's  palace,  a 
Mohammedan  Mosque,  and  several  temples  that 
are  worthy  of  notice.  The  Mosque,  erected  by 
Shah-Jehan  in  1634,  is  built  of  red  sandstone,  and 
of  exquisite  workmanship.  It  is  surrounded  by 
an  extensive  Mussulman  Cemetery,  that  contains 
the  Mausoleum,  a  very  marvel  of  beauty,  erected 
in  memory  of  a  Sayud  missionary.  The  sacred 
lake  of  Muchkounder  lies  hidden  among  the  moun- 
tains about  two  miles  from  the  town.  According 
to  the  legend,  it  was  created  by  the  god  Krishna 
to  reward  the  hero  Monchou,  who  had  saved  the 
god's  life,  and  for  this  reason  is  held  in  great  ven- 
eration by  the  Krishnayas. 

The  present  Maharajah,  who  received  the  Prince 
of  Wales  with  such  empressement,  is  spoken  of  as 
"a  charming  boy,  who  speaks  English  well,  and 
delights  in  manly  sports  ;  and  became  at  once  the 
friend  of  the  Prince,  who  took  to  him  greatly." 
He  furnished  a  grand  Sowaree  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Prince's  visit,  and  a  handsome  dejeuner  to  the 
Europeans.  This  is  the  young  grandson  of  the 
genial  old  prince,  Maharajah  Rana  Bag  wan  Singh, 
who  entertained  M.  Rousselet  and  his  suite  so 


Rana  Bagwan  Singh.  235 

kindly  in  1866,  and  whom  he  describes  as  having  a 
gentle,  manly  expression  of  countenance,  and  as 
wearing  a  steel  helmet  attached  to  a  narrow  circle 
of  gold,  and  covered  with  shining  emeralds,  while 
from  his  breastplate  depended  "  innumerable  chains 
composed  of  pearls  and  diamonds."  *  This  much- 
adorned  prince  was  so  highly  esteemed  by  his 
subjects,  that  they  bestowed  on  him  the  appel- 
lation of  the  "  Friend  of  his  people." 

Leaving  the  town  of  Dholepore,  before  reaching 
the  extreme  border  of  the  state,  Nourabad  comes 
in  view,  opposite  to  which  an  old  Hindu  bridge 
spans  the  river  Sauk.  It  is  built  of  solid  granite 
supported  by  seven  pointed  arches,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  erected  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  a 
society  of  philanthropic  beggars,  who  obtained  the 
money  by  selling  consecrated  oils  from  village  to 
village.  Its  name,  Tali-ka-paul,  "  Bridge  of  Oil 
merchants,"  seems  to  give  confirmation  to  the 
tradition. 

Nourabad  was,  in  the  days  of  the  Padishas,  a 
town  of  note  and  capital  of  one  of  the  provinces 
of  North  Malwar.  The  high  walls,  defended  by 
square  towers  and  superb  monumental  gates,  are 

*  Native  Princes  of  India,  page  297. 


236  Provinces  and  People. 

still  standing ;  and  it  contains  a  palace  built  by 
Aurungzebe  and  the  Mausoleum  of  the  celebrated 
Gonna  Begum,  who  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
"  Taza-bi-Taza,"  and  other  poems  of  the  last  cent- 
ury. 

The  English  high-road  from  Dholepore  crosses 
the  Chumbul  by  a  bridge  of  boats  into  Gwalior, 
the  territory  of  the  powerful  Maharajah  Scindia. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GWALIOK    AND    SCINDIA. 

ANCIENT  Gwalior  had  its  fortress  on  the 
summit  of  an  isolated  rock,  three  hundred 
and  forty  feet  high,  two  miles  long,  and  three  hun- 
dred yards  at  its  greatest  breadth.  The  great 
citadel  stands  as  a  sentinel  at  the  entrance  of  the 
valley,  and  tradition  places  the  founding  at  several 
centuries  before  our  era.  In  773,  Rajah  Sourya 
Sena  strengthened  the  fortress  by  constructing  the 
ramparts.  The  Kachwas  held  the  fortress  till 
967  ;  the  Chohans  to  1196,  when  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Shahib-u-din,  and  in  1234,  into  those  of 
the  Emperor  Altamsh.  The  Touar  Rajputs  be- 
came its  masters  in  1410  ;  in  1519,  it  was  annexed 
to  the  crown  of  Delhi,  by  Ibrahim  Lodi ;  and  at 

the  dismemberment  of  the   Mogul  Empire  it  fell 

237 


238  Grwalior  and  Scindia. 

alternately  into  the  hands  of  Jats  and  Mahrattas. 
After  1779,  it  suffered  various  vicissitudes ;  but 
in  1805  it  was  restored  to  the  Scindias  by  treaty. 
Then  followed  half  a  century  of  comparative 
peace,  and  the  Fortress  itself  has  remained  in  the 
hands  of  its  lawful  owners.  But  in  1857,  the 
Maharajah  Scindia  refusing  to  aid  in  the  Seapoy 
mutiny,  the  fort  was  attacked  by  one  of  Nena 
Sahib's  detachments,  and  fell  temporarily  into 
their  hands ;  but  General  Rose  at  once  dislodged 
the  enemy  by  planting  his  batteries  on  the  sur- 
rounding heights.  The  attachment  of  Scindia  to 
the  British  came  very  near  costing  him  his  throne, 
and  he  afterwards  lost  prestige  among  his  own 
people  by  the  discovery  and  surrender  of  a  sup- 
positious  Nena  Sahib,  heir  in  their  eyes  of  the 
Peishwa.  Yet,  under  the  pretext  of  protecting 
the  young  Prince  from  future  outbreaks  of  his  re- 
bellious subjects,  the  English  have  ever  since 
retained  possession  of  the  plateau.  By  the  admis- 
sion of  the  English  themselves,  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  Lord  Canning  promised,  in  1859,  to 
restore  it  to  its  rightful  lord  ;  but  the  plea  of  to- 
day for  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  pledge,  is  that 
"  Lord  Canning  did  not  promise  to  restore  it  at 


A   PARSEE    MERCHANT   AT    BOMBAY. 


Maharajah  Scindia.  241 

once,  but  only  that  the  plateau  should  be 
yielded  up  at  some  convenient  season/'  This 
seems  but  shallow  reasoning,  if  those  on  the  in- 
terested side  are  to  be  the  sole  judges  of  the  con- 
veniency.  But  they  overcome  all  scruples  by 
maintaining  that  "  it  is  very  useful  to  Scindia  to 
have  a  British  garrison  where  he  can  be  protected 
against  the  revolt  of  his  own  army  and  subjects." 
The  real  solution  of  the  enigma  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Maharajah  Scindia  is  one  of  the  cases  that 
present  formidable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  Empire.  The  Prince  delights  in 
soldiering,  and  good  judges  in  the  English  army 
say  they  have  few  men  in  their  own  service,  "  who 
could  put  a  Division  of  the  three  arms  through  a 
good  field-day  so  well  as  Scindia  does."  His 
"  Review,"  before  the  Prince  of  Wales,  when, 
robed  in  scarlet  and  gold  he  rode  at  the  head  of 
a  "  truly  brilliant  staff,"  was  pronounced  "  a  grand 
success ; "  and  so  powerful  a  ruler,  with  these 
martial  tendencies,  and  abundant  leisure  for  brood- 
ing and  planning,  must  be,  in  his  devotion  to 
"  drilling  and  maneuvering,"  more  or  less  cause  oi 
anxiety  to  the  "  Paramount  Power."  The  admin* 

istration  of  the  government  in  this  State  is  greatly 
H.  I —16 


242  Grwalior  and   Scindia. 

superior  to  that  of  the  majority  of  Indian  States, 
owing  largely,  no  doubt,  to  the  wise  counsels  of 
Sir  Dinkur  Rao,  a  dignified,  courteous,  far-seeing 
statesman,  who  was  at  the  helm  of  state  during 
the  minority  of  the  Prince;  and  probably  in  an 
equal  degree  to  the  noble  character  of  the  present 
Maharajah  himself.  This  nobleness  may  be  in- 
ferred from  his  answer,  when  the  Bombay  Gov- 
ernment desired  to  buy  the  site  for  the  Palace  of 
Gunnesh  Khind.  '•  A  man,"  was  the  lordly  reply, 
"does  not  sell  his  patrimony,  but  lie  can  give  it  to 
hisfrind." 

The  counsels  of  Sir  Dinkur  Rao  may  have  had 
an  influence  in  Scindia's  decision  to  withhold  his 
powerful  aid  from  the  rebels;  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  Maharajah  thus  preserved  the  independ- 
ence of  his  kingdom.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the 
cause  of  the  English  was  saved  at  a  very  critical 
juncture  by  the  course  of  Scindia  and  his  Minister. 

The  English  rewarded  the  service  of  the  latter 
by  conferring  on  him  the  order  of  knighthood  ;  to 
the  former,  it  was  repaid  by  the  unjust  retention 
of  his  fort,  which  he  lost  solely  by  refusing  to  join 
hands  with  the  foes  of  England  in  the  hour  of  her 
extremest  need.  Despite  all  this,  the  Maharajah 


Town  of  G-walior.  243 

Scindia  maintains  in  his  own  realm  a  truly  regal 
sway,  while  he  disports  a  genuine  royalty  that  is  of 
himself  and  not  of  his  surroundings. 

The  present  town  of  Gwalior  extends  to  the 
north  and  east  of  the  fortress  between  the  Rock 
and  the  river  Sawunrika.  It  was  a  large  and 
handsome  settlement  with  some  thirty  or  forty 
thousand  inhabitants ;  but  the  founding  of  a  new 
capital  by  the  Scindias,  two  miles  off,  checked  the 
growth  of  Gwalior,  and  attracted  not  only  the 
nobility,  but  the  higher  classes  of  trade  to  the 
court  of  Lashkar.  The  architecture  of  the  houses 
of  Gwalior  is  good,  but  the  streets  are  narrow, 
and  there  is  but  one  monument  of  an  earlier  date 
than  the  sixteenth  century.  The  two  most  noted 
are  the  Jumma  Musjid,  a  handsome  mosque  flanked 
by  two  lofty  minarets,  and  the  Hatti  Durwaza, 
"  Gate  of  Elephants,"  a  curious,  triumphal  arch, 
situated  on  a  mound  at  the  entrance  of  the  town. 
Hidden  among  the  trees,  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  fortress,  is  a  large  palace,  the  exterior  of  which 
is  adorned  with  bright  blue  enamel ;  and  its  fine 
monumental  gates,  still  guarded  with  portcullis 
and  iron  doors,  defend  the  entrances  to  the  fort- 
ress. From  one  of  these  there  is  a  superb  tri- 


244  Grwalior   and  Scindia. 

umphal  arch;  and  there  are  monuments,  bas- 
reliefs,  cisterns,  and  caverns,  while  the  very  rocks 
contain  chambers,  altars,  and  statues  innumerable. 
Opposite  the  fourth  gate  there  is  a  monolith,  sup- 
posed to  date  back  to  the  fifteenth  century,  an 
elegant  temple  cut  out  of  a  single  block  of  stone, 
and  crowned  with  a  superb  pyramidal  spire.  The 
"  King  Pal  "  Palace,  with  its  six  massive  towers, 
all  adorned  with  balconies  and  pilasters,  its  Jain 
arches  and  sculptured  bands,  its  blue  and  rose 
enamels,  and  exquisite  mosaics,  is  a  very  wonder 
of  beauty  and  strength ;  and  standing  on  the 
utmost  verge  of  the  precipice,  a  gigantic  union  of 
rampart  and  palace. 

The  Scindias  are  of  a  powerful  Mahratta  family 
of  husbandmen,  of  the  Sudra  caste,  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Satara.  The  first  who  carried  arms  and 
rescued  their  name  from  obscurity  was  Ranaji 
Scindia  who,  about  the  year  1725,  went  to  the 
court  of  Poonah,  and  obtained  the  important  post 
of  slipper-bearer  to  the  Peishwa.  One  day,  while 
the  Peishwa  was  detained  longer  than  usual,  his 
slipper-bearer  fell  asleep  from  very  weariness  of 
waiting,  and  when,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  audi- 
ence, the  Peishwa  looked  for  his  slippers,  he  found 


A    HINDOO    TEMPLE    IN    THE    BLACK    TOWN,    BOMBAY.  245 


The    Sleepy  Slipper-bearer.  247 

Ranaji  fast  asleep  with  the  slippers  clasped  tightly 
to  his  bosom.  The  Peishwa  was  so  touched  with 
this  proof  of  devotion  that  he  at  once  raised 
Scindia  to  the  highest  office  in  his  gift.  Ranaji 
had  the  wisdom  and  tact  to  profit  by  his  good 
fortune,  and  so  to  make  use  of  his  daily  increasing 
influence  that  he  became  ere  long  one  of  the 
most  popular  leaders  of  the  Mahratta  troops  ;  and 
at  his  death,  he  left  a  vast  kingdom  in  the  heart  of 
Malwa  to  his  son  Mahaji.  At  the  terrible  battle 
of  Paniput,  1761,  Mahaji  fell,  wounded  by  an  axe, 
and  was  left  among  the  dead.  Ultimately,  he  was 
picked  up  by  a  water-carrier  and  taken  to  the 
Deccan ;  and  later,  on  his  return  to  the  court  of 
Poonah,  Scindia  was  again  entrusted  with  the 
administration  of  the  government.  With  true 
patriotism  he  devoted  himself  to  the  public  ser- 
vice, using  all  the  power  he  acquired  for  the  benefit 
of  the  country,  respecting  its  institutions,  and  re- 
jecting all  overtures  from  the  English,  by  whom 
he  was  accredited  as  sovereign  of  Malwa  and 
Doab.  His  death  occurring  in  1794,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Daolut  Rao  Scindia,  an 
energetic  and  promising  youth  of  thirteen,  who,  with 
consummate  skill  in  the  disposition  of  his  forces, 


248  Gwalior  and  Scindia. 

extended  his  dominion  to  the  Punjaub ;  and 
having  obtained  possession  of  the  person  of  the 
Padisha,  kept  him  in  retirement,  on  a  comfort- 
able pension,  while  he  himself  replaced  the  deposed 
sovereign.  He  was  the  determined  foe  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  rule,  and  he  put  forth  diligent 
effort  to  transform  his  undisciplined  troopers  into 
an  army  capable  of  contesting  the  advances  of  the 
English.  His  expeditions  into  the  Deccan  having 
brought  him  in  contact  with  several  French  adven- 
turers, the  remnants  of  General  Lattry's  army, 
their  services  were  secured,  and  through  their  aid, 
the  Mahratta  troops  were  rapidly  re-organized  and 
fitted  for  effective  service.  For  a  time  the  Eng- 
lish were  often  defeated  by  these  well-organized 
battalions  of  Mahrattas,  "\vho  were  brave  as  lions, 
and  had  only  needed  disciplined  officers  to  guide 
their  movements  to  render  them  almost  invincible. 
But  unfortunately  for  them,  Perron,  one  of  their 
best  officers,  swayed  by  private  interest,  accepted 
the  overtures  of  Wellington  (then  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley),  and  retired  to  private  life  with  a 
handsome  fortune.  Another,  Bourquien,  was 
defeated  at  Delhi  and  made  prisoner;  and  thus 
deprived  of  the  valuable  aid  of  his  officers,  Daolut 


Scindia   Conquered.  249 

Rao  was  completely  overpowered  at  the  battle  of 
Lasswari  in  November  1803,  and  compelled  to 
negotiate  for  peace  with  the  promise  to  dismiss  all 
his  French  officers,  and  never  again  to  reinstate 
them  in  his  army.  Other  defeats  following,  in 
1818,  Scindia  agreed  to  a  final  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  English,  whereby  he  relinquished  his  possession 
of  Delhi  and  the  Padisha,  and  agreed  to  retire 
with  his  forces  beyond  the  Chumbul,  and  to  allow 
the  English  to  form  two  camps  of  occupation 
within  his  territory.  Dankhaji,  Daolut's  successor, 
dying  in  1843,  without  issue,  quarrels  concerning 
the  succession  followed,  but  by  the  intervention 
of  the  English,  after  two  hard-fought  battles,  the 
nephew  of  Dankhaji  was  seated  on  the  throne, 
and  the  succession  established  in  this  branch  of 
the  family. 

The  territories  of  Scindia  now  extend  from  the 
Chumbul  to  the  Satpura  Mountains,  an  area  of 
about  thirty-three  thousand  miles,  including  West- 
ern Malwa,  part  of  Bundelcund,  of  Haracouti, 
and  of  Omultwara.  The  population  is  estimated 
variously  at  from  five  to  seven  millions,  but  in  the 
absence  of  a  regular  census  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine precisely  the  real  number.  The  present 


250  Crwalior  and  Scindia. 

capital  is  Gwaliorka  Lashkar,  or  the  "Camp  of 
Gwalior  "  -  —  its  name  agreeing  well  with  the 
origin  of  this  new'  city.  When  Mahaji  invaded 
this  portion  of  India  he  established  his  head- 
quarters two  miles  from  Gwalior,  and  wishing  to 
maintain  his  Mahrattas  in  active  service,  and  to 
prevent  any  intercourse  between  them  and  the 
conquered  people,  he  formed  a  permanent  camp  on 
the  spot  where  he  himself  lived  under  canvas 
among  his  followers.  This  camp  became  his  cap- 
ital, whence  his  hordes  of  soldiers  made  plundering 
tours  over  all  the  surrounding  country,  returning 
occasionally  to  camp,  where  they  remained  during 
the  rains.  Little  by  little  the  tents  were  replaced 
by  houses,  where  the  soldiers  lived  surrounded  by 
their  families,  bazaars  sprang  up,  the  king's  tent 
was  transformed  into  a  royal  palace,  and  the  camp 
became  a  town.  Although  still  called  "•  Lashkar," 
it  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  cities  in  India,  with 
a  population  of  full  three  hundred  thousand. 
The  fort  is  separated  from  the  new  capital  by  a 
plain,  bounded  by  a  picturesque  range  of  hills 
consecrated  to  the  monkey-god  Hunouman,  and 
the  entrance  to  the  suburb  of  the  Satti  Ghati  or 
"  Broken  Mountain."  The  name  seems  to  indicate 


An  Indian  Elysium.  253 

the  deep  cut  through  the  mountain  that  forms  the 
road  between  the  suburb  and  the  town.  This 
suburb  is  composed  of  the  loveliest  of  Indian 
villas,  the  summer  residences  of  the  nobles  of 
Scindia's  court  —  a  perfect  Elysium  wreathed  in 
orange  and  myrtle,  the  air  redolent  with  delicious 
perfumes,  and  vocal  with  the  sweet  songs  of  a 
thousand  birds.  The  town  contains  the  old  palace 
of  the  Scindias,  a  vast  group  of  buildings  in  the 
style  of  Digh;  and  the  new  palace  built  by  the 
present  king,  in  a  mixed  style  of  Hindu  and  Ital- 
ian architecture  which  is  less  pretty  than  the  old  ; 
but  within,  everything  is  superbly  beautiful,  large, 
airy,  well-ventilated  apartments,  with  sculptures, 
frescoes  and  hangings,  pictures,  mirrors  and  furni- 
ture faultless  and  exquisitely  lovely.  Upwards 
of  three  hundred  thousand  leaves  of  gold  were 
used  in  decorating  the  reception-rooms;  and  the 
grand  dining-room,  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
saloons  in  the  world,  has  chandeliers  of  wondrous 
beauty  and  most  unique  design,  and  the  walls  are 
lined  with  immense  mirrors  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship. The  bedstead,  washing  service,  and  bath  of 
the  prince  are  all  of  solid  silver,  as  are  also  all  the 
lamps  of  the  private  apartments. 


254  Owalior  and  Scindia. 

The  old  palace  of  the  kings  of  Gwalior  covers 
an  immense  area  on  the  east  of  the  plateau.  It  is 
not  the  work  of  any  one  prince  or  dynasty,  but  has 
been  added  to  by  each  from  the  time  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

The  temple  of  Adinath  is  an  unusually  fine 
specimen  of  the  old  Jam  architecture  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  similar  to  the  ancient  sanctuaries 
of  Mount  Aboo  ;  and  many  of  the  superb  ara- 
besques that  adorn  the  pillars  are  cut  in  the  pol- 
ished stone  with  wonderful  effect. 

The  great  Cihara  temple,  standing  in  the  centre 
of  the  plateau,  must  have  been  Buddhist  at  the 
first,  as  there  is  still  discernible  against  the  wall 
in  the  large  apartment  on  the  ground  floor  the 
outline  of  a  gigantic  statue  of  Buddha,  showing 
where  it  stood  against  the  wall.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  Jains  took  possession  of  the 
temple  and  devoted  it  to  their  own  worship  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Buddhists  from  India.  From 
this  point  extend  the  long  line  of  English  barracks 
which,  neat,  orderly  and  well-kept  as  they  unques- 
tionably are,  must  be  a  terrible  source  of  annoy- 
ance to  the  Maharajah,  and  a  perpetual  reminder 
of  the  broken  faith  of  his  allies.  Possiblv  these 


Attar  of  Hoses.  255 

associations  and  the  foundation  upon  which  they 
rest  may  account  for  the  sad,  far-away  look  of  the 
eyes,  and  the  almost  melancholy  expression  about 
the  whole  face  of  this  noble  prince,  giving  the 
features  when  in  repose  an  older  look  than  their 
forty  years  would  warrant.  But  it  is  a  noble, 
princely  face  withal,  and  replete,  as  is  every  gest- 
ure and  attitude,  with  a  dignity  truly  royal. 

The  ceremony  of  attar  and  pan,  that  always 
concludes  an  Indian  "  Durbar,"  i.  e.,  a  full-dress 
reception  given  by  a  sovereign  or  personage  of 
exalted  rank  —  is,  at  this  court  performed  with 
more  than  the  ordinary  expenditure  of  royal  mu- 
nificence. Each  guest  receives  a  dainty  handker- 
chief of  delicately  embroidered  India  muslin, 
which  he  places  folded  on  the  palm  of  his  right 
hand;  then  the  Maharajah  rises,  and  going  for- 
ward to  each  in  turn,  pours  attar  of  roses  on  the 
handkerchief,  and  presents  the  visitor  with  betel- 
nut,  cerie'-leaves  and  cardamoms ;  at  the  same  time 
throwing  about  the  neck  a  garland  of  jessamine  or 
tube  roses  fastened  with  a  string  of  small  pearls. 

It  is  only  to  European  visitors  and  to  natives  of 
the  very  highest  rank  that  an  Indian  Maharajah 
performs  this  ceremony  in  person,  while  others  of 


256  Crwalior  and  Scindia. 

less  exalted  position  are  waited  on  by  one  of  the 
ministers. 

A  single  example  will  suffice  to  show  the  method 
of  governing  adopted  by  the  native  princes  of 
India  in  the  olden  times,  before  the  advent  of 
British  rule.  Meywar  is  one  of  the  grandest  of 
the  native  states,  having  for  its  capital,  Oudey- 
pore,  "  City  of  the  Rising  Sun,"  and  for  its  sover- 
eign the  Maharana,  who  is  the  recognized  repre- 
sentative of  the  famous  Indian  "  Race  of  the 
Sun,"  and  acknowledged  by  all  the  Rajput  Princes 
as  the  head  of  their  nation.  Yet,  in  this  very 
kingdom  of  Meywar  there  has  always  existed  a 
Feudal  Council  composed  of  sixteen  Raos  or 
Dukes,  whose  influence  and  authority  is  so  power- 
ful as  almost  to  nullify  the  kingly  prerogative,  or  to 
render  the  power  of  the  sovereign  little  more  than 
nominal.  These  Raos,  who  are  usually  descend- 
ants of  the  Royal  family,  have  the  kingdom  divided 
among  themselves  into  large  fiefs  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  and,  to  a  great  extent,  of 
the  general  government.  Each  governs  in  his  own 
capital  after  his  own  will,  rarely  visiting  Oudey- 
pore  and  still  more  rarely  referring  any  decision  to 
the  Maharana  —  not  opposing  his  authority,  but 


.  I.— 17         PARSEE    LADY   AND   HER   DAUGHTER 


A  Feudal  Council.  259 

almost  ignoring  it.  The  chief  of  these  Dukes  or 
Feudal  Lords  is  the  Rao  of  Baidlah  who,  govern- 
ing a  large  territory  and  having  his  capital  near  to 
Oudeypore,  is  a  frequent  visitor  of  the  Maharana, 
presenting  himself  at  the  court  without  previous 
announcement,  and  without  any  humiliating  cere- 
mony, but  always  with  dignity  and  deference  to 
the  king.  The  present  Rao,  a  fine-looking  old 
courtier,  is  both  genial  and  politic,  living  on  ex- 
cellent terms  with  his  Prince,  and  at  the  same 
time  maintaining  kindly  relations  with  the  Eng- 
lish Government.  He  very  evidently  favors  the 
introduction  of  European  commerce  and  improve- 
ments, but  declines  to  abate  one  tittle  of  the 
splendor  or  ancient  routine  of  the  court  of  Oudey- 
pore, or  one  tittle  of  the  deference  due  to  his  Sov- 
ereign from  the  "  outside  world,"  or  to  the  feudal 
rights  of  the  nobles.  He  is,  nevertheless,  in  high 
favor  with  Queen  Victoria,  who  presented  to  him 
a  magnificent  jewelled  sword  in  return  for  the 
protection  and  support  he  afforded  to  European 
fugitives  from  Indore  and  Neemuch  during  the 
mutiny  of  1857.  It  was  due  mainly  to  his  influ- 
ence that  they  were  protected  in  the  little  island 
of  Jugmunder,  and  for  so  many  months  were  fur- 


260  Gf-walior  and  Scindia. 

nished  with  all  needed  supplies  at  the  expense  of  the 
Oudeypore  Government.  He  belongs  to  the  tribe  of 
the  Chohans,  and  enjoys  several  rather  curious  pre- 
rogatives, the  strangest  of  which  is,  that  all  the  in- 
signia of  royalty  are  sent  to  him  at  Baidlah  on  the 
third  of  the  month  of  Samvatsiri,  when,  having 
donned  the  regal  paraphernalia,  he  goes  in  state, 
attended  with  all  the  pomp  and  parade  of  a  sover- 
eign, to  visit  the  Rana,  who,  in  person  receives  the 
illustrious  guest  at  the  door  and  conducts  him 
within.  A  few  hours  later,  he  comes  forth,  and 
returns  to  his  own  feudal  palace,  personating  no 
longer  the  Rana,  but  once  more  occupying  his  own 
position  as  Rao  of  Baidlah. 

Most  native  prisons  are  clean,  comfortable  and 
well-kept.  The  superintendent  lives  on  the  prem- 
ises in  a  separate  building ;  and  the  prisoners  are 
lodged  under  great  sheds,  where  they  sleep  on  the 
floor  in  lines  of  fifty  or  more.  Their  chains  are 
fastened  at  night  to  long  iron  bars  that  run  the 
entire  length  of  the  halls;  but  the  shackles  are 
riveted  only  to  one  ankle.  The  chain  is  seldom 
heavy,  except  where  the  prisoner  has  attempted  to 
escape  and  been  recaptured;  and  the  length  is 
sufficient  to  permit  running  and  lying  down  with 


Native  Prisons.  261 

ease.  There  is  no  special  uniform  for  convicts, 
but  each  man  wears  the  clothes  he  happened  to 
have  on  when  first  brought  to  the  prison.  Scru- 
ples of  caste  are  carefully  respected,  every  man  re- 
ceiving his  food  raw,  and  preparing  it  himself,  for 
which  purpose  he  is  permitted  to  light  a  fire  and 
draw  water  at  option.  Prisoners  are  generally 
employed  in  making  roads,  and  keeping  them  in 
repair  ;  but  they  work  only  a  few  hours  daily,  and 
are  not  under  strict  surveillance.  Severe  punish- 
ments are  seldom  inflicted  under  native  officers, 
except  in  cases  of  extreme  aggravation. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CLIMATE  AND    SOIL. 

EXTENDING  over  so  vast  a  region,  there  is 
of  course  great  diversity  of  climate  and 
productions  in  the  different  sections  of  India. 
The  Monsoons,  or  periodical  Trade  Winds,  also 
exert  a  decided  influence  on  temperature,  more 
especially  near  the  coast.  The  Northeast  Monsoon 
commences  about  the  middle  of  November,  and 
the  Southwest,  towards  the  middle  of  May,  though 
the  time  varies  somewhat  in  different  latitudes, 
and  the  change  of  the  Monsoon  is  nearly  always 
attended  by  stormy  weather,  sometimes  by  fright- 
ful hurricanes  and  destructive  tornadoes.  The 
seasons  are  three  in  number  ;  hot,  rainy,  and  cold. 
The  temperature  of  respective  localities  is  mod- 
ified, not  only  by  latitude  but  by  local  surround- 

262 


Seasons.  265 

ings;  but  after  making  due  allowance  for  these 
causes,  the  hottest  months  all  through  India  will 
be  March,  April,  May  and  June.  Then  follow 
the  rains,  from  June  15th  to  October  15th,  when 
the  showers  fall  heavy  and  fast  for  part,  at  least,  of 
every  day,  and  sometimes  for  many  days  together, 
without  intermission,  till  the  low  lands  are  covered 
with  water,  and  the  roads  in  some  localities  utterly 
impassable.  In  other  places,  fields  and  meadows, 
before  parched  and  dry,  are  clothed  in  emerald- 
green,  shrubs  and  flowers  assume  brighter  tints, 
and  all  nature,  vegetable  and  animal,  looks  re- 
freshed and  revivified  by  this  welcome  change  from 
the  long,  hot,  sweltering  days  of  the  exhaust- 
ing summer.  About  the  middle  of  October  the 
rains  subside,  the  atmosphere  clears,  and  a  pure, 
cool  (not  cold),  salubrious  temperature  succeeds. 
This  is,  to  Europeans,  the  pleasantest  time  of  all 
the  year,  and  the  most  healthful.  But  orientals,  as 
a  rule,  prefer  the  hot  months,  and  seem  glad  when 
the  "  cold  season,"  as  they  call  it,  is  over.  Thus 
every  year,  for  eight  months,  the  sun  shines  stead- 
ily, with  rarely  a  shadow  across  his  cheery  face ; 
and  then  for  four  months  the  rain  falls  without 
"  let  or  hindrance."  Yet  a  beneficent  Father  has 


266  Climate  and  Soil. 

provided  an  antidote  for  what  seems  to  us  in  tem- 
perate latitudes  a  ruinous  drought,  during  those 
eight  rainless  months.  The  dews  all  over  South- 
ern Asia  are  very  heavy,  not  only  diminishing  the 
heat,  but  greatly  refreshing  vegetation  and  per- 
fecting growth,  that  must  otherwise  have  been 
stunted  and  blasted  by  excessive  heat. 

In  Jeypore,  and  some  other  portions  of  the  Raj- 
put territory  where  the  lands  are  hilly  and  broken, 
the  seasons  are  more  decided  than  in  Southern 
India.  The  winters  are  so  cold  that  the  thermom- 
eter falls  often  to  zero  in  the  early  morning  hours, 
during  the  month  of  January,  while  the  summers 
are  dry  and  hot.  In  March,  the  hot  winds,  the 
great  scourge  of  Upper  India,  begin  to  blow,  the 
season  being  ushered  in  by  storms  of  sand  carried 
along  with  such  violence  as  to  do  great  damage, 
especially  in  the  province  of  Malwa  and  the  Jat 
country.  The  heavens  are  overcast  by  pale  yel- 
low clouds,  charged  with  sand  and  vapor,  that  in 
falling  are  unpleasant  beyond  measure.  These 
storms  are  succeeded  by  hot  winds  from  the  west, 
their  heat  being  still  more  increased  by  their  pass- 
ing for  hundreds  of  miles  over  the  burning  sands 
of  Persia  and  Beloochistan.  Such  is  the  intense 


The  Madras  Climate.  267 

heat  of  these  winds,  that  during  their  prevalence 
the  ground  becomes  parched,  trees  cast  their 
leaves,  and  vegetation  is  completely  at  a  stand. 
At  Madras,  this  hot  wind  prevails  during  the 
months  of  April  and  May.  Sweeping  over  the 
Western  Ghauts,  it  deposits  there  its  moisture, 
and  crossing  the  burning  plains  of  Mysore  and  the 
Carnatic,  it  reaches  the  eastern  shore  of  Southern 
India  so  dry  and  heated  as  to  be  almost  as  unen- 
durable as  the  air  from  an  open  furnace.  Animal 
and  vegetable  nature  wilt  beneath  its  influence, 
and  Europeans,  or  those  who  have  come  from 
colder  lands,  shrink  from  this  sirocco  within  the 
shelter  of  their  houses  where  every  window  and 
door  facing  the  west  must  be  carefully  closed,  and 
covered  with  thick  mats.  These  are  kept  con- 
stantly wet,  day  and  night,  by  coolies  who  stand 
with  buckets  of  water,  and  every  half-hour  give 
the  mats  a  thorough  drenching  from  ceiling  to 
floor.  As  the  result  of  the  wind  being  brought  in 
contact  with  the  mass  of  wet  matting,  it  loses  a 
portion  of  its  heat,  and  the  surrounding  air  is 
renewed  and  freshened.  Without  these  precau- 
tions it  would  be  impossible  for  foreigners  to  live 
in  an  atmosphere,  exposed  to  which,  flowers  in 


268  Climate  and  Soil, 

vases  will  turn  black  and  crisp,  as  from  the  effects 
of  fire ;  the  covers  of  pamphlets  curl  up,  and  the 
face,  of  furniture  becomes  so  heated  that  one  can 
scarcely  bear  his  hand  upon  it.  Happily,  these 
winds  are  intermittent,  blowing  only  for  a  few 
weeks  at  a  time,  and  then  there  is  a  brief  interval 
of  less  exhaustive  heat,  after  which  the  hot 
winds  again  prevail,  and  so  on  until  about  the 
middle  of  June,  when  the  blessed  rain  begins 
to  descend,  giving  new  life  and  vigor  to  every- 
thing that  lives  and  breathes.  One  or  two  heavy 
storms  changa  the  whole  aspect  of  nature  —  the 
sand  disappears  beneath  a  luxuriant  carpet  of  em- 
erald grass,  bright  flowers  dot  the  meadows  where 
shortly  before  they  would  have  been  parched  with 
heat,  and  trees  are  clothed  in  verdure  that  will 
be  quickly  followed  by  blossoms  and  ripe  fruit. 

But  India  is  withal  a  good  land  to  dwell  in  —  fer- 
tile, productive  and  healthful  to  those  accustomed  to 
the  heat,  yielding  freely,  and  with  comparatively 
little  labor,  an  abundance  of  the  good  things 
needed  to  sustain  life  and  supply  all  the  wants  of 
its  teeming  millions.  This  was  eminently  true, 
with  only  very  rare  exceptions,  in  the  former  times, 
before  the  advent  of  British  power  in  India ;  and 


" 


Famines.  271 

that  days  of  plenty  have,  so  frequently  of  late 
years  been  supplanted  by  frightful  and  oft-repeated 
famines,  seems  due,  not  to  the  country  itself,  nor 
to  its  native  inhabitants,  but  to  three  items  of 
mismanagement  on  the  part  of  its  foreign  custo- 
dians. The  first  of  these  is  the  enforced  culture 
of  opium,  taking  up  extensive  tracts  of  the  best 
lands  that  might  otherwise  be  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  breadstuffs,  and  supply  food  to  thous- 
ands of  those  who  annually  perish  from  famine. 
Much  additional  land  has  been  occupied  by  the 
English  in  the  construction  of  railways  for  their 
own  accommodation,  in  conveying  troops  from 
point  to  point,  erecting  extensive  military  barracks, 
forts  and  arsenals,  and  the  building  of  palatial 
Government  Houses,  Residences  and  Villas  with 
extensive  Parks  and  Gardens,  thus  still  more 
diminishing  the  area  of  "  bread-lands "  and  the 
consequent  resources  of  the  people.  The  second 
cause  of  destitution  is  found  in  the  excessive  tax- 
ation, that  keeps  the  laboring  classes,  cultivators 
especiall}*,  so  ground  down  by  poverty,  that  they 
can  barely  live  in  times  of  plenty,  and,  having 
absolutely  nothing  laid  by  with  which  to  purchase 
redemption  from  death  when  the  famine  is  upon 


272  Climate  and  Soil. 

them,  they  have  no  alternative  but  to  die  of  starva- 
tion. The  third  cause  is  the  lack  of  sufficient  irri- 
gation, which  England  might  surely  afford  to 
supply  in  return  for  all  the  territory  and  treasure 
she  has  appropriated  in  that  fair  land.  Despite 
the  injustice  of  the  compulsory  cultivation  of 
opium,  and  the  large  tracts  of  land  thus  perverted 
from  their  legitimate  use,  it  is  believed  by  com- 
petent judges  that  with  such  irrigation  as  could  be 
readily  supplied,  this  broad  land  might  still  be 
made  to  furnish  abundant  sustenance  for  all  its 
people.  But  impoverished  as  the  masses  are,  this 
great  work  of  irrigation  could  never  be  done  by 
the  tax-payers,  and  must,  if  accomplished  at  all,  be 
the  work  of  those  who  appropriate  the  immense 
revenues  of  the  Indian  Empire.  One  who  was 
upon  the  ground  at  the  time,  states  that  "  The  en- 
hancement of  the  land-tax  in  1874  and  1875 
resulted,  in  the  three  Collectorals  of  Sholopore, 
Poonah,  and  Satara  alone,  in  more  than  forty 
thousand  evictions  in  a  single  year!  What  wonder 
that  the  famine  of  1876  and  1877  raged  with 
most  severity  in  the  Sholopore  Collectorate,  where 
most  of  these  evictions  took  place." 

Of  the  warmer  portions  of  India,  rice,  which  is 


Productions.  273 

the  common  food  of  the  people,  is  the  staple  prod- 
uct; but  wheat,  barley,  millet,  buckwheat  and 
maize  are  all  extensively  cultivated  in  different 
sections  of  the  land.  During  the  past  few  years, 
India  has  become  one  of  the  largest  wheat-growing 
countries  in  the  world,  and  it  is  believed,  that  with 
the  completion  of  the  Indus  Railway  the  price  of 
transportation  will  be  sufficiently  reduced  to  en- 
courage a  very  extensive  exportation  of  wheat 
from  the  Punjaub.  Cotton,  sugar,  indigo  and 
tobacco  yield  abundant  returns  in  many  parts ; 
esculents  and  kitchen  vegetables  are  varied  and 
abundant,  and  fruits  of  both  tropic  and  temperate 
latitudes  flourish  in  the  several  sections.  Among 
the  specialties  of  India,  there  is  one  found  in  the 
Cashmere  Valley  not  common  elsewhere.  This  is 
the  Singhara  or  Water-nut  (tra-pa-bis-pinosa)  of 
which  more  than  sixty  thousand  tons  are  annually 
gathered  from  the  Wutter  Lake.  This  nut,  though 
rather  insipid,  is  considered  very  nutritious,  and 
thousands  of  Cashmerians  subsist  on  it  entirely. 
The  nut  is  usually  ground  and  made  either  into 
paste,  or  baked  in  leaves.  It  is  also  eaten  boiled 
or  roasted.  Experiments  prove  that  very  many  of 

the   European   vegetables  will  grow  readily  and 
H.  I. — 18 


274  Climate  and  Soil. 

well  on  Indian  soil  by  irrigation.  Thus  far,  how- 
ever, they  have  been  cultivated  only  by  the  native 
nobles  and  by  the  English,  and  they  can  rarely  be 
purchased  either  in  the  bazaars  or  from  the  farmers. 
The  potato  seems,  of  all  that  have  been  tried,  the 
most  difficult  to  acclimate ;  and  except  on  the 
Neilgherries,  the  Ghauts,  and  the  abutments  of  the 
Himalayas,  the  potato  growth  has  proved  a  fail- 
ure. The  lack  of  accustomed  vegetables,  and  of 
the  light-raised  bread  that  constitutes  so  impor- 
tant" an  article  of  diet  at  home,  not  only  interferes 
with  the  comfort  of  foreign  travellers  in  India, 
but  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  ill-health,  especially 
to  the  unacclimated  stranger.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  compensation  found  in  the  abundance, 
variety  and  excellent  quality  of  the  fruits,  of 
which  many  varieties,  ripe,  luscious  and  freshly- 
gathered  may  be  placed  on  the  board  every  day  in 
the  year. 

India  has  also  its  vegetable  curiosities,  both  of 
fruits  and  trees.  The  Cashew  nut  —  anacardium 
occidentale  — is  an  out-branching  tree,  seldom  more 
than  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  high,  and  in  appearance 
somewhat  resembling  the  walnut  tree,  with  large, 
oval,  blunt,  alternate  leaves,  and  a  fragrant,  rose- 


Trees  and  Fruits.  275 

colored  flower.  The  fruit  is  pear-shaped,  and  its 
curious  feature  is  a  crescent  or  kidney-shaped  nut 
growing  on  the  end,  outside  of  the  fruit  where  it 
looks  odd  enough  in  its  grave  coat  of  russet-brown. 
The  fruit  itself  has  a  pretty,  pinkish  tinge,  and  an 
acid,  though  rather  agreeable  taste.  The  nuts, 
roasted,  are  both  palatable  and  nutritions. 

The  Banian,  ficus  Indica*  is  the  king  of  the 
Indian  forests,  a  stately,  royal-looking  patriarch, 
that  stands  in  hoary  grandeur,  surrounded  by  his 
descendants  of  three  and  four  centuries  old.  It 
has  the  faculty  of  throwing  off  from  its  branches 
supplementary  roots  that  grow  very  rapidly  up- 
ward and  soon  become  in  their  turn  stems  for  the 
support  of  the  parent  branches,  thus  extending 
wider  and  wider  their  domain.  The  Indians  have 
a  legend  that  it  was  from  a  Banian  in  the  garden 
of  Eden  that  our  first  parents  "  gathered  fig-leaves 
and  made  themselves  aprons,"  and  that  it  was  also 
a  Banian  that  gave  them  their  first  idea  of  con- 
structing houses  for  habitation. 

This  tree  produces  small  figs  that  grow  in 
bunches  on  the  stems  and  branches.  Small  fruit 
for  so  huge  a  tree.  But  this  seems  one  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  trees  of  the  tropics.  The 


276  Climate  and  Soil. 

lovely  tamarind  tree  that  grows  to  fully  a  hundred 
feet  in  height,  and  fifteen  feet  in  circumference, 
with  branches  widely  extended,  has  a  dense  foliage 
of  bright  green,  composite  leaves,  in  form  and 
size  nearly  resembling  the  little  sensitive  plant. 
The  flowers  also  are  small,  hanging  in  golden-hued 
clusters,  veined  with  scarlet,  and  the  fruit  is  in 
pods,  like  beans,  three  or  four  inches  in  length. 
Near  the  village  of  Rataupee,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nerbudda,  is  the  famous  Kabirabar,  the  oldest  and 
largest  Banian  in  India.  The  Hindu  tradition  is, 
that  it  was  planted  by  the  sage  Kabira  before  the 
Christian  era.  By  the  continual  increase  of  its 
branches,  shooting  downwards  and  sending  forth 
new  stems,  it  had  grown  to  cover  an  area  of  more 
than  a  thousand  yards  ir  circumference.  Dur- 
ing the  first  decade  of  the  present  century  this 
great  tree  was  seriously  injured  by  a  hurricane, 
and  though  gradually  recovering,  it  does  not  yet 
cover  more  than  a  circuit  of  seven  hundred  yards. 
The  central  trunk  has  long  ago  disappeared,  and 
the  vacancy  is  filled  by  a  picturesque  little  temple. 
Miss  Britain,  of  Calcutta,  while  on  a  recent  visit 
to  an  ancient  temple  in  Allahabad,  saw,  in  a  dark 
corner  of  a  grotto  under  ground,  a  pepul  tree 


A   Useful  Tree.  279 

which  has  been  growing  for  hundreds  of  years  in 
utter  darkness.  The  leaves  of  this  pepul  are  per- 
fectly white,  frosted  with  the  centuries,  and  rising 
as  an  imperial  crown  above  its  hoary  head. 

The  Mhowah  or  Mahwah,  cassia-latifolia,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  trees  of  the  Indian 
forest.  It  has  a  straight  trunk  of  immense  diam- 
eter, its  branches  are  raised  gracefully  like  the 
sconces  of  a  candelabra,  and  its  dark  green  foliage 
is  spread  out  in  successive  stories,  casting  a  thick 
shade  -all  about  the  tree.  Towards  the  end  of 
February  its  leaves  fall  quite  suddenly,  leaving 
the  tree  completely  bare.  These  leaves  are  gath- 
ered, and  used  for  bedding,  roofing,  and  caps  or 
hats.  A  few  days  after  the  shedding  of  the  leaves 
the  candelabras  fill  rapidly  with  masses  of  flowers, 
looking  like  small,  round  fruit,  and  arranged  in 
clusters.  The  petals,  which  are  pale  yellow,  form 
a  berry  about  as  large  as  an  ordinary  grape,  which 
leaves  room  for  the  stamen  to  pass  through  a 
small  aperture,  and  when  fully  ripe  these  petals 
fall  naturally.  The  Indians  only  remove  the 
brush-wood  from  around  the  tree,'  and  every 
evening  the  fallen  flowers  form  a  thick  bed  which 
is  carefully  collected.  This  shower  continues  for 


280  Climate  and  Soil. 

several  days,  a  single  tree  yielding  an  average 
weight  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  of 
flowers  each  year.  These  flowers  are  the  manna 
of  the  jungle,  and  their  greater  or  less  abundance 
decides  the  famine  or  plenty  of  the  region.  When 
fresh  they  have  rather  a  pleasant  taste,  and  the 
natives  consume  great  quantities  in  this  state. 
They  also  make  them  into  cakes,  and  into  quite  a 
variety  of  dishes.  But  the  larger  portion  is  dried 
and  laid  by  for  use  during  the  year  till  the  coming  of 
the  next  crop  ;  and  after  having  been  cured,  the  blos- 
soms are  ground  into  flour,  that  is  baked  in  loaves 
or  cakes.  By  fermentation  the  Mhowah  flowers 
produce  a  pleasant  wine  ;  by  distillation  a  strong 
brandy,  and  of  the  residue,  good  vinegar  is  made. 
When  the  flowers  have  disappeared  the  leaves  re- 
turn, and  rapidly  cover  the  tree  again  ;  and  in 
April  the  fruit  comes  to  replace  the  flowers.  The 
fruit  is  almond-shaped,  with  a  violet-colored  shell 
covering  a  smooth,  hard  envelope,  that  contains  a 
delicate  almond,  pure  white  and  very  luscious. 
These  nuts  are  used  for  cakes,  and  eaten  also  in 
form  of  paste ;  and  by  pressure  they  make  an  ex- 
cellent oil,  after  which,  the  refuse  serves  for  fatten- 
ing buffaloes.  The  bark  of  the  tree  yields  woody 


The  Wiowah.  281 

fibre,  used  for  making  ropes  ;  and  the  wood  is  val- 
uable for  building,  as  it  is  one  of  the  few  species 
of  timber  that  will  resist  the  attacks  of  the  white 
ant.  The  Ghounds,  Bheels,  Mhairs,  and  Minas 
regard  this  tree  as  equal  to  the  gods ;  they  hold 
their  solemn  assemblies  beneath  its  shade,  where 
also,  contracts,  betrothals  and  marriages  are  ar- 
ranged ;  on  its  branches  they  suspend  offerings 
and  sacrifices  ;  and  around  its  roots  they  spread 
those  mysterious  circles  of  stones  that  represent 
their  objects  of  worship.  They  will  fight  desper- 
ately in  defence  of  their  Mhowahs ;  and  where 
these  trees  disappeared  the  Bheel  and  the  Ghound 
are  seen  no  more.  This  much-esteemed  tree  is 
occasionally  cultivated  in  the  plain,  but  it  is  indig- 
enous to  the  mountain  regions. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    CASTE    SYSTEM. 

CASTE,  is  a  Portuguese  word  that  is  used  by 
the  English  to  express  the  meaning  of  the 
Hindu  word  Jathi,  the  term  applied  by  them  to 
the  distinction  of  classes  or  tribes  among  the 
Hindus,  though  they  apply  the  same  word  to  for- 
eigners, to  distinguish  between  nations ;  as  the 
English  Jathi,  the  Portuguese  Jathi,  and  so  on. 

The  term  Hindu,  as  applied  by  the  natives, 
means  not  so  much  the  people  of  Hindustan  as  it 
does  the  members  of  all  the  various  sects  who 
have  adopted  the  S3'stem  of  castes,  and  yield  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  Brahmins.  Caste  may  be 
called  the  cement  that  binds  together  all  these 
numerous  sects  and  classes  ;  not  merely  separating 

each  one    from   all  others,   but    compacting   the 

282 


The  Four  Castes.  285 

whole,  forming  of  dissimilar  and  uncongenial 
units  an  almost  impregnable  wall  that  closely 
binds  together  the  whole  Hindu  people,  but  equally 
divides  them  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Prop- 
erly speaking,  there  are  but  four  castes ;  and  ac- 
cording to  the  Hindu  Vedas,  these  were  ordained 
of  the  gods,  while  all  outside  of  these  are  casteless 
or  outcasts.  The  four  divinely-instituted  castes 
are,  the  Brahmin,  the  Kschatrya,  the  Vaishya,  and 
the  Sudra.  On  the  same  authority  it  is  asserted 
that  the  Brahmins  sprang  from  the  head  of  the 
Creator  Brahma,  and  having  thus  proceeded  from 
his  noblest  part,  they  are  by  birth  pre-eminent  in 
dignity  and  holiness,  and  by  right  the  priests  and 
law-givers  of  the  nation. 

The  Kschatryas,  having  sprung  from  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  god,  are  predestined  to  the  kingly  and 
military  offices  —  to  govern  the  nation  and  to  do 
their  fighting. 

The  Vaishyas,  who  proceeded  from  the  god's 
body,  are  to  provide  for  the  pecuniary  support  of 
the  State,  doing  duty  as  merchants,  and  filling  all 
the  departments  of  trade. 

The  Sudras  sprang  from  the  feet  of  Brahma, 
and  being  thus  the  lowest  of  all  they  must  per- 


286  The  Caste  System. 

form    all   mechanical    and    servile    labor  for   the 
higher  castes,  especially  the  Brahmins. 

Such  was  the  divine  decree,  as  promulgated  by 
the  Brahmins,  who  took  care  to  appropriate  to 
themselves  the  highest  place  ;  and  such  was  prob- 
ably the  original  system  as  practised  at  first.  But 
the  passing  years  have  made  great  changes,  the 
military  and  mercantile  castes  have  almost  disap- 
peared as  distinct  organizations,  and  the  great 
division  is  now  between  the  Brahmins  and  Soudras. 
But  these  have  been  divided  and  subdivided  into 
a  great  many  others,  until  it  is  commonly  said, 
that  there  are  eighteen  high  castes,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  eight  low  castes,  each  trade  and  calling 
having  one  of  its  own  ;  while  a  very  large  class, 
known  as  Pariahs,  or  outcasts,  have  no  caste  at 
all.  But  even  Pariahs  have  grades  and  distinc- 
tions of  rank  among  themselves,  of  which  they  are 
just  as  tenacious  as  those  recognized  as  their  supe- 
riors can  possibly  be  of  their  own.  Among  the 
many  subdivisions  still  maintained,  at  least  in  the 
letter,  if  not  in  the  spirit  of  this  wonderful  sys- 
tem, the  Brahmins  have  four  sects,  the  Kschatryas 
three,  the  Vaishyas  three,  and  the  Soudras  eighty- 
five,  some  of  the  last  being  again  subdivided,  as 


Division  of  Castes.  287 

the  class  of  Soudras  who  cultivate  the  soil  have 
no  less  than  twenty  distinct  castes.  So  very  rig- 
orous are  these  exactions  of  caste,  that  the  chil- 
dren of  a  carpenter  can  rnarry  only  the  offspring 
of  other  carpenters  ;  the  sons  of  a  washerman  may 
seek  wives  only  in  the  families  of  others  of  the 
same  craft ;  boatmen  must  marr}'  boatmen's  daugh- 
ters ;  and  so  on  through  every  vocation  or  busi- 
ness, high  or  low.  Neither  may  a  man  change  his 
calling,  nor  enter  any  other  than  that  to  which  his 
ancestors  belonged.  If  the  father  and  grand- 
father have  been  syces  or  dhobis,  or  grass-cutters, 
so  perforce  must  be  the  sons  to  the  latest  genera- 
tion ;  and  there  is  no  possibility  of  any  rise  in 
rank,  or  of  bettering  of  the  condition  in  life,  except 
by  losing  caste ;  and  this  system  gives  the  death- 
blow to  ever}rthing  like  "  progress,"  and  ambition 
to  attain  to  higher  wisdom  or  excellence  than  their 
forefathers. 

The  Brahmins  are  the  most  powerful,  as  they 
are  the  most  domineering  and  insolent  of  all  the 
castes.  Assuming  to  themselves  the  rights  of 
gods,  they  relentlessly  trample  under  foot  those  of 
all  others.  They  dress  altogether  in  white  attire 
with  marks  of  clay  on  their  foreheads,  arms,  and 


288  The   Caste  System. 

bodies,  and  the  poita  or  sacred  cord  over  the  shoul- 
der. They  observe  a  strictly  vegetable  diet,  and 
abstain  not  only  from  intoxicating  drinks,  but  even 
from  tobacco  in  every  form.  When  the  son  of  a 
Brahmin  is  twelve  days  old,  a  festival  is  held  in 
honor  of  his  naming;  when  six  months  of  age, 
another  feast  marks  the  giving  of  his  first  meal  of 
solid  food,  and  a  third  season  of  rejoicing  occurs 
when  he  is  two  years  old,  at  which  time  his  head 
is  shaved,  his  ears  bored,  his  nails  pared,  and  he  is 
robed  in  a  new  style  of  garments.  But  the  most 
important  epoch  in  the  life  of  a  Brahmin,  is  when 
he  is  nine  years  of  age.  Then,  amid  feasting  and 
revelry,  songs,  shouts  and  rejoicings,  he  is  invested 
with  "  the  sacred  cord,"  consisting  of  a  hundred 
and  eight  threads,  made  of  cotton,  gathered  and 
spun  by  Brahmins.  The  cord  is  worn  over  the 
left  shoulder,  and  passes  across  the  breast  to  the 
right  hip.  At  the  time  of  the  investiture,  the 
novice  is  taught  the  gayatri  or  Brahminical  prayer, 
that  no  lips  but  those  of  a  Brahmin  may  pro- 
nounce ;  and  the  young  heir  being  thereby  in- 
stated in  his  legal  rights,  is  thenceforth  regarded 
as  "  twice  born." 

For  the  other  castes  no  special  ceremonies  are 


MEETING   OF   TRAVELLERS   WITH   THE   MAHARAJAH   OF          289 
TT    i 19  CHUTTERPORE. 


Caste  Organization.  291 

prescribed,  as  they  are  deemed  so  far  inferior  to 
the  lordly  Brahmins.  But  each  caste  has  its  sepa- 
rate legal  organization,  and  administers  its  own 
laws,  no  other  daring  to  interfere.  None  of  those 
belonging  to  one  caste  may  enter  the  abode,  or  eat 
in  the  presence  of  the  members  of  another. 
Should  he  presume  to  do  so  the  penalty  is  fearful. 
All  his  worldly  possessions,  of  whatever  sort,  are 
confiscated  to  the  caste  he  has  disgraced ;  and 
worse  than  all,  his  wife  is  absolved  from  her  vows, 
and  his  children  no  longer  acknowledge  him  as 
father.  It  is  only  on  the  most  humiliating  terms, 
and  by  making  the  fullest  reparation  that  he  can 
be  restored  to  favor.  Each  caste  bounds  its  duties 
and  hospitality  by  the  extent  of  its  own  circle ; 
for  to  give  or  receive  favors  beyond  this  limit 
renders  both  parties  to  the  profanation  accursed. 
Nor  is  it  only  high-castes  that  are  thus  profaned 
by  contact  with  others.  Even  the  outcast  Pariah, 
who  feeds  on  carrion,  finds  some  one  beneath  him, 
on  whom  he  may  look  down ;  and  the  very  lowest 
Soudra  would  deem  it  defilement  to  receive  a  cup 
of  tea  from  the  hands  of  any  king  in  Europe. 
For  a  high-caste  pauper  is  regarded  as  the  supe- 
rior of  a  low-caste  (or  no-caste)  sovereign ;  and 


292  The   Caste  System. 

many  a  poor  woman  has,  during  the  famines,  died 
of  starvation  rather  than  receive  food  from  the 
hands  of  benevolent  foreigners.  The  breaking  of 
the  rules  of  caste  is  punished  by  fines,  beating,  or 
burning  with  red-hot  irons,  according  to  the  nat- 
ure of  the  offence  ;  besides  which,  if  the  offence  be 
serious  the  offender  is  driven  out  from  parents,  wife 
and  children,  who  refuse  to  eat  with  him,  or  give 
him  a  drop  of  water,  and  his  society  is  thencefor- 
ward shunned  by  all.  He  not  only  sinks  to  a 
lower  caste :  he  becomes  a  Pariah,  an  outcast,  a 
dog,  and  a  vagabond  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 
Though  the  offence  should  be  involuntary,  or  acci- 
dental, the  penalty  is  just  the  same  ;  for  it  is  the 
defilement,  not  the  sin,  that  makes  the  crime.  Mr. 
Dulles  mentions  a  wealthy  Brahmin  who,  from 
pure  spite,  was  seized  by  a  European,  and  beef  and 
wine  forced  down  his  throat.  He  resisted  to  the 
utmost  of  his  strength,  but  his  foe  was  the  stronger 
of  the  two,  and  the  Brahmin  became  an  outcast. 
After  three  years,  his  friends  spent  forty  thousand 
dollars  in  endeavoring  to  have  his  caste  restored, 
but  in  vain.  Later,  another  attempt  at  a  cost  of 
one  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  made,  and  the 


Losing  Caste.  293 

Brahmin  was  reinstated,  after  having  to  submit  to 
the  most  humiliating  and  revolting  penalties. 

During  the  reign  of  the  cruel  Tippoo  Sahib,  lie 
endeavored  to  force  the  Hindus  to  adopt  the  Mos- 
lem faith,  and  compelled  a  number  of  them  to  eat 
beef  as  an  evidence  that  they  had  forsaken  their 
national  religion.  After  the  overthrow  and  death 
of  the  tyrant,  these  men  prayed  earnestly,  but 
without  avail,  to  be  reinstated  in  their  old  caste 
privileges,  and  to  the  day  of  their  death  they  had 
to  endure  all  the  penalties  of  outcasts,  for  the 
fault  of  another.  No  penalty  was  deemed  suffi- 
cient to  atone  for  the  horrible  crime  of  sacrilege 
in  eating  the  flesh  of  the  "sacred  cow."  For  theft, 
fraud,  lying,  perjury  or  adultery,  they  might  have 
atoned ;  but  the  stain  of  beef-eating  could  neither 
be  forgiven  nor  washed  away  ! 

It  is  quite  impossible  at  the  present  day  for  the 
Hindus,  after  centuries  of  subjection  to  foreign 
rule,  Mohammedan  and  English,  and  all  the 
changes  thereby  induced,  to  conform  to  and  en- 
force the  rules  of  caste,  as  in  the  old  Hindu  days. 
But  there  is  still  the  old  clinging  to  the  system, 
and  a  stubborn  determination,  as  far  as  practica- 
ble, to  carry  out  the  teachings  of  the  Shasters. 


294  The   Caste  System. 

With  all  the  wrong  it  engenders,  caste,  it  must  be 
admitted,  offers  some  advantages ;  and  these  are  of 
just  the  nature  to  find  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the 
calm,  contemplative,  unambitious  Hindu  of  the 
middle  and  upper  classes.  He  does  not  care  to 
rise  above  his  easy,  tranquil  life,  or  to  go  out  of 
the  stereotyped  habits  that  have  become  his  second 
nature  ;  and  he  has  no  fear  of  falling  out  of  the 
position  he  has  inherited,  since  the  bounds  are 
fixed  and  immovable.  If  he  travel  in  other  sec- 
tions of  his  country,  however  far  from  home,  he 
finds  always  a  shelter  and  a  welcome  with  those  of 
his  own  fraternity  ;  while  no  one,  in  his  absence, 
though  it  should  be  prolonged  to  years,  would  ever 
risk  loss  of  caste  by  interfering  with  his  homestead 
or  rights,  while  the  owner  was  away. 

Different  castes  preponderate  in  different  local- 
ities ;  as,  for  example,  in  Bombay,  the  largest  depot 
for  trade  and  the  commercial  metropolis  of  India, 
Kschatryas  number  but  few,  while  the  two  wealth- 
ier castes,  Brahmins  and  Vaishyas  (merchants) 
greatly  exceed  all  others.  The  former  merely  in- 
vest capital,  and  reap  large  profits,  while  seeming 
to  take  no  part  in  such  worldly  affairs ;  while  the 
Vaishyas,  some  classes  of  them  especially,  give  all 


Various    Castes.  297 

their  time  and  energies  to  trade.  The  Purvus,  a 
caste  or  class  immediately  below  the  Brahmins, 
are  a  civil,  upright,  active  set  of  men,  filling  for 
the  most  part,  places  in  the  Custom  House,  and 
other  government  establishments,  and  acting  in 
mercantile  houses,  as  cashiers  and  shipping  clerks. 
Many  of  this  class  have  filled  places  of  responsi- 
bility, and  amassed  fortunes  in  the  European  ser- 
vice, public  and  private ;  sometimes  even  rising 
to  the  position  of  members  of  the  Governor's 
Council.  The  Purvus  wear  gay-colored  turbans 
of  an  enormous  size,  by  which  they  are  readily 
recognized  as  far  as  they  can  be  seen,  and  hence 
are  easily  found  when  their  services  are  in  requisi- 
tion. 

Another  class  are  the  Khayats  or  Scribes,  who 
are  generally  good  linguists,  and  often  fill  the 
office  of  interpreter  to  ships,  in  courts,  and  else- 
where. The  Buniahs  are  a  large  and  influential 
class  of  merchants,  and  they  are  the  most  noted 
speculators  in  India  cottons  and  English  linens, 
from  which  Bombay  derives  such  an  immense  rev- 
enue. They  are  also  noted  as  bankers  and 
brokers.  The  dress  of  the  Buniahs  is  peculiar. 
It  consists  of  a  Sdrong  or  waist-cloth,  adorned 


298  The    Caste  System. 

with  a  broad  red  band,  and  folded  tight  about  the 
limbs ;  a  long,  tight-fitting  calico  tunic,  descend- 
ing almost  to  the  feet,  and  a  round  turban  coiled 

O 

like  a  snake  about  the  head.  These  quaint  tur- 
bans are  quite  in  contrast  with  the  high,  stiff  hate 
of  the  Parsees,  another  merchant  caste  of  Bom- 
bay, very  numerous  and  noted  for  wealth,  energy, 
and  uprightness.  The  Parsees  and  Buniahs  are 
often  partners  in  business,  but  not  in  society. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  very  strangest  things  in  re- 
gard to  caste,  is  its  rules  in  respect  to  the  sick  and 
dying.  If  a  person  supposed  to  be  dying  has 
been  taken  down  to  the  Ganges  to  breathe  his  last 
near  that  holy  river,  and  he  should  afterwards  re- 
cover, it  is  deemed  by  all  his  friends  the  greatest 
misfortune  that  could  possibly  befall  him  and 
them.  For  he  thus  becomes  an  outcast,  and  un- 
clean, so  that  even  his  nearest  relatives  dare  not 
speak  to  him  or  permit  him  to  enter  their  houses, 
on  pain  of  loss  of  caste,  —  the  great  terror  of  the 
Hindu.  His  own  wife  and  children,  however 
dearly  they  may  love  him,  can  never  eat  with  him 
again  or  offer  him  the  least  attention  ;  and  if  by 
any  chance  they  should  happen  to  touch  him,  they 
must  wash  their  bodies,  and  purify  themselves  by 


The  Loss  of  Caste.  299 

various  ceremonies  and  offerings,  to  be  cleansed 
from  the  pollution.  A  gentleman  travelling  in 
the  East,  some  years  ago,  had  with  him  several 
servants  and  a  dog ;  and  one  day  they  stopped 
near  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  to  rest  and  look 
about  them.  All  of  a  sudden  the  dog  disappeared, 
and  after  considerable  search  he  was  found  licking 
A  human  body  that  was  lying  near  the  river  bank. 

On  examination,  Mr.  N found  that  the  man 

who  had  been  left  here  to  die  was  still  alive,  and,  he 
judged  from  appearances,  might  possibly  recover. 
So  he  directed  his  servants  to  wash  off  the  mud 
from  the  poor  fellow's  face,  roll  him  carefully  in  a 
blanket  and  take  care  of  him.  The  invalid  was  in 
a  few  days  entirely  restored,  but  he  manifested 
such  terror  at  the  outcast  life  that  awaited  him 
that  he  preferred  to  go  with  this  strange  gentle- 
man to  a  country  he  knew  nothing  of  than  to  be  left 
in  his  old  home,  where  he  was  looked  at  as  utterly 
unclean  and  worse  than  dead.  About  fifty  miles 
north  of  Calcutta  are  two  villages  inhabited  en- 
tirely by  poor  creatures  who  have  become  outcasts 
in  consequence  of  their  recovery,  after  having 
been  taken  down  to  the  Ganges  to  die. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CHRISTIAN   MISSIONS. 

OF  the.  first  introduction  of  Christianity  in- 
to India  we  have  no  trustworthy  record. 
Though  Eusebius  speaks  of  St.  Bartholomew's  go- 
ing to  India,  and  Socrates,  speaking  of  the  divis- 
ion of  the  Gentile  world  by  the  Apostles,  says : 
"  India  was  assigned  to  St.  Bartholomew,"  it  is  by 
no  means  certain  what  part  of  the  world  was 
alluded  to  under  the  general  term  of  India  as 
then  used.  The  Syrian  Christians  of  Travancore 
and  Malabar  have  a  tradition  that  St.  Thomas 
preached  the  Gospel  in  many  portions  of  the 
Indian  Peninsula  j  and  an  original  manuscript  is 
said  to  be  in  existence  among  the  Malabar  Chris- 
tians containing  the  record  of  a  visit  of  the 

Apostle  Thomas  to  that  region,  A.  D.  52  ;  of  many 

300 


St.   Thomas  of  India.  301 

converts  being  made  by  him;  and  of  his  being 
subsequently  put  to  death  on  the  Mount  outside 
the  town  of  Meliapore,  now  called  by  Europeans, 
St.  Thome*,  and  not  far  from  the  city  of  Madras. 
Other  writers  place  the  date  of  the  first  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  India,  in  the  fourth 
century,  during  the  reign  of  Constantine  ;  while 
the  Nestorians  claim  to  have  been  the  pioneers  in 
this  work,  during  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  cent- 
ury. Amid  these  conflicting  statements,  it  is  now 
impossible  to  determine  the  correctness  of  either ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  the  early  Portuguese  settlers, 
who  arrived  on  the  Malabar  coast  about  A.D.  1504, 
found  there  a  Christian  king,  with  numerous 
churches,  and  a  large  body  of  professing  Chris- 
tians. Their  worship  is  described  as  pure  and 
simple  —  wholly  unlike  the  forms  and  ceremonies 
used  by  the  new-comers,  who  vainly  sought  to 
subjugate  the  Malabar  Christians  to  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  —  they  persistently  ignoring  his  right 
to  interfere  with  their  religion,  and  questioning 
the  very  existence  of  any  such  personage  as  a 
papal  head  to  the  Christian  church.  They  claimed 
for  themselves  an  existence  of  nearly  thirteen 
centuries,  and  for  their  bishops  a  regular  succes- 


302  Christian  Missions. 

eion  from  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  "where,"  said 
they  triumphantly,  the  "  disciples  were  first  called 
Christians ;  but  where  was  no  Pope."  For  more 
than  a  century  this  ecclesiastical  war  was  waged  • 
but  the  oriental  Christians  were  the  weaker  side, 
and  corruptions,  too,  had  gradually  crept  in  among 
this  simple-hearted  folk,  until  at  last,  worn  out 
by  opposition,  they  laid  down  their  arms,  as  it 
were,  under  protest,  and  were  compelled  to  submit 
to  the  dogmas  of  the  Church  of  Rome ;  and 
farther,  to  the  decree  passed  by  the  Pope,  that 
"All  Syrian  books  on  ecclesiastical  subjects  shall 
be  burned  in  order  that  no  pretended  apostolical 
monuments  may  remain."  The  records  of  the 
Syrian  Christians  still  extant,  declare  that  ' '  while 
their  books  were  burning  the  bishops  went 
round  in  procession,  chanting  a  song  of  triumph." 
But  it  was  only  among  the  churches  on  the  sea- 
coast  that  these  violent  measures  achieved  even  a 
partial  success  ;  those  of  the  interior  avowed  theii 
opposition,  concealed  their  Bibles  and  religious 
books,  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  when  pursued, 
appealed  to  the  native  princes  for  protection.  The 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  at  Goa,  about 
1560,  put  the  finishing  touch  to  the  enormities  of 


The  Portuguese.  305 

the  Romish  priests,  and  drove  thousands  of  the 
nominal  Christians,  baptized  by  the  excellent 
Xavier,  back  into  the  Hindu  and  Moslem  churches 
before  he  had  been  for  a  single  decade  in  his 
peaceful  tomb. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  the  Portuguese 
were  untiring  in  their  efforts  to  proselyte  the 
Hindus ;  resorting,  when  force  and  severity  had 
failed,  to  all  manner  of  deceptions,  disguises  and 
concessions  —  professing  the  warmest  attachment 
to  native  institutions,  adopting  the  Hindu  garb, 
and  abstaining,  like  the  Brahmins,  from  all  animal 
food  and  stimulating  drinks  ;  while  the  priests  de- 
clared themselves  the  immediate  descendants  of 
the  Hindu  god  Brahma !  Among  those  who  thus 
added  perjury  to  hypocrisy,  was  the  famous  Robert 
de  Nobili,  a  nephew  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  and 
a  near  relative  of  the  Pope.  In  the  furtherance  of 
his  infamous  plans,  Nobili  caused  to  be  written  in 
Hindustanee,  a  new  Veda,  as  he  called  the  forgery 
he  attempted  to  palm  off  on  the  .unsuspecting 
Brahmins  as  a  genuine  native  production,  in  which 
the  doctrines  and  dogmas  of  the  Romish  church 
were  artfully  interwoven  with  Hindu  fables,  and 

Brahminical  lore. 
H.  I.— 20 


306  Christian  Missions. 

With  the  passing  years,  this  amalgamation  in- 
creased till,  as  conceded  by  the  Abbe*  Dubois : 
"  The  Hindu  pageantry  is  chiefly  seen  in  the  festi- 
vals celebrated  by  the  native  Christians  ;  "  and  in 
many  places  the  same  car  was  used  on  Hindu  fes- 
tival days  for  idol-deities,  and  on  Romish  high-days 
for  images  of  the  saints. 

Such  is  Romanism  in  India  at  the  present  day. 
Its  adherents  are  composed  mainly  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  mixed  marriages  of  Portuguese  and 
natives,  and  nominal  converts  who,  but  for  their 
form  of  baptism,  differ  in  no  respect  from  their 
heathen  neighbors,  with  a  very  small  sprinkling  of 
foreign  priests  or  bishops,  generally  Italians.  The 
majority  of  the  clergy  are  natives  of  the  country, 
educated  at  Goa,  frequently  of  intemperate  habits, 
and  nearly  always  of  debased  moral  character; 
while  the  mass  of  the  people  are  the  most  ignorant, 
unpromising,  and  degraded  class  in  India.  The 
Bible  has  always  been  withheld  from  them,  no 
portion  of  the  Scriptures  being  ever  translated  by 
popish  missionaries  into  any  of  the  languages  of 
the  East ;  and  only  the  most  garbled  versions  of 
the  inspired  record  communicated  to  the  people  in 
the  oral  instructions  of  the  priests. 


Protestant  Missions.  309 

The  first  Protestant  mission  in  India  was  com- 
menced by  the  Danish  Government  at  Tranque- 
bar,  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  at  the  instigation  of  Dr. 
Lutkins,  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the  King  of  Den- 
mark. The  first  missionaries  were  Messrs.  Ziegen- 
balg  and  Plutschau,  who  arrived  at  Tranquebar  in 
1705.  Though  opposed  and  persecuted  —  oftener 
by  Europeans  than  Hindus  —  their  work  pro- 
gressed ;  another  missionary  joined  the  first,  a 
printing-press,  printer,  and  physician  were  soon 
added,  the  New  Testament  was  translated  and 
printed  in  Tamil,  and  other  works,  including  a  dic- 
tionary of  the  language,  were  prepared  and 
printed.  When  Ziegenbalg  died  in  1719,  after 
thirteen  years  of  most  faithful  and  self-denying 
labors,  a  noble  band  of  three  hundred  and  fifty- 
five  native  converts  attested  his  success  in  laboring 
for  their  salvation.  Seven  years  later,  the  number 
had  been  nearly  doubled  ;  and  despite  the  counter- 
acting influence  of  almost  incessant  wars  between 
the  several  European  nations  and  the  natives,  and 
the  immoral  lives  led  by  the  majority  of  the  for- 
eign residents,  "  the  little  one  became  a  thousand, 
and  the  small  one  mighty." 


310  Christian  Missions. 

In  1733,  the  first  native  pastor  was  ordained  ;  in 
1727  the  Madras  Mission,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Christian  Knowledge  Society,  was  founded  by 
Dr.  Schultze,  who  had  previously  completed  the 
Tamil  Old  Testament,  begun  by  Ziegenbalg ;  and 
in  1737  a  third  mission  was  established  at  Cudda- 
lore,  on  the  same  coast.  In  1750,  the  immortal 
Schwartz  began  his  great  work  in  India,  which  was. 
continued  for  forty-eight  years  with  such  unflinch- 
ing zeal  and  fidelity  as  to  evoke  the  highest  en- 
comiums of  both  Christians  and  pagans  ;  while 
such  was  his  reputation  among  Moslems  that 
the  haughty  Hyder  Ali,  when  refusing  to  receive 
the  English  Embassy,  said :  "  Send  me  the  Chris- 
tian (Schwartz)  ;  he  will  not  deceive  me."  The 
same  man,  on  his  death-bed,  sent  for  Schwartz, 
and  entreated  him  to  become  the  guardian  and 
educator  of  his  adopted  son  Serfogee,  the  future 
Rajah  of  Tanjore,  and  the  same  who,  at  the  demise 
of  Schwartz,  sixteen  years  afterwards,  delayed  the 
funeral  "  that  he  might  look  once  more  upon  the 
face  of  his  friend,  that  he  bedewed  with  tears,  and 
covered  with  cloth  of  gold,  ere  the  coffin  hid  it 
from  his  sight."  The  church  in  Tanjore,  where 
this  great  apostle  preached,  and  the  chapel  where 


THE    MOIIORl'M    (NEW-YEAR    FESTIVAL),   AT   BHOPAL.  3" 


English  Missions.  313 

his  remains  are  interred,  are  both  still  used  for 
Christian  worship ;  and  in  the  wall  opposite  the 
pulpit  of  the  former,  is  a  beautiful  monument  of 
white  marble,  by  Flaxman,  erected  at  the  expense 
of  the  Rajah.  The  design  is  the  closing  scene  of 
the  missionary's  life,  whence,  surrounded  by  weep- 
ing pupils  and  friends,  the  Rajah  himself  among 
them,  and  the  dying  eyes  fixed  upon  the  cross 
held  aloft  by  a  descending  angel,  the  good  man 
passes  to  his  rest.  Beneath  is  an  elaborate  and 
most  interesting  inscription. 

The  first  English  missionaries  to  India  were 
Rev.  Messrs.  Carey  and  Thomas,  who  landed  in 
Calcutta,  November,  1793.  Their  project,  from 
the  very  outset,  received  only  ridicule  from  friends 
at  home,  and  persistent  opposition  and  persecution 
from  their  countrymen  in  India,  until  at  last,  they 
were  driven  from  Calcutta  to  Serampore,  and  found 
under  the  shelter  of  the  Danish  flag  the  protec- 
tion denied  them  by  their  own.  Here,  warmly 
welcomed  by  the  Danish  Governor,  a  former  friend 
and  parishioner  of  Schwartz,  Ward,  Carey,  Marsh- 
man  and  Thomas  set  themselves  diligently  to 
work  in  studying  the  languages,  and  in  the  print- 
ing and  distribution  of  Christian  tracts,  as  well  as 


314  Christian  Missions. 

to  the  oral  instruction  of  all  within  their  reach. 
Frederick  VI.,  of  Denmark,  assured  them  of  his 
especial  favor  and  protection  ;  multitudes  flocked 
to  hear  the  missionaries  preach,  the  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  into  Bengali  was  completed 
and  printed  in  February,  1801,  and  about  the  same 
time,  the  first  native  convert  was  baptized  in  the 
presence  of  the  governor,  and  a  large  concourse  of 
Hindus,  Mohammedans,  Portuguese  and  English. 
In  1816,  seven  hundred  natives  had  been  baptized, 
and  ten  thousand  children  had  been  instructed  in 
the  truths  of  the  Christian  religion.  Two  years 
later,  a  college  was  founded,  in  which,  besides  San- 
scrit, Arabic,  and  many  Indian  languages,  English, 
Greek  and  Hebrew  were  also  taught.  The  witty 
Sydney  Smith  satirized  and  ridiculed  Carey  and 
his  associates,  as  "  consecrated  cobblers  "  and 
"  maniacs,"  and,  in  an  article  for  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  in  1808,  held  up  their  work  to  derision ; 
yet  to-day  their  names  are  honored  as  India's  best 
and  truest  benefactors;  and  their  work,  then  but 
the  beginning  of  a  tiny  rivulet,  has  gone  on  wid- 
ening and  deepening,  receiving  in  its  onward  course 
many  tributaries,  till  it  has  become  a  great  and 
mighty  river  enriching  and  beautifying  that  broad 


American  Missions.  315 

land,  and  scattering  joy  and  blessing  everywhere 
in  its  course. 

Other  lands  and  other  societies  have,  as  the 
years  passed  on,  taken  part  in  this  great  work  of 
carrying  the  gospel  to  India ;  but  the  work  has 
been  easier  to  their  successors,  that  these  brave  pio- 
neers so  effectually  opened  the  door  that  world- 
liness  and  bigotry  would  have  closed. 

The  first  missionaries  to  India  from  the  United 
States  were  Judson,  Newell,  Rice,  Hall  and  Nott, 
who  were  sent  out  by  the  "American  Board"  of 
Foreign  Missions,  in  1812.  The  same  arbitrary 
power  that  had  opposed  the  work  of  Carey  and  his 
associates,  for  a  time  effectually  hindered  the 
establishment  of  stations  by  the  American  mis- 
sionaries anywhere  within  the  dominions  of  the 
British  East  India  Company ;  and  these  new-com- 
ers were  subjected  to  even  greater  annoyances  and 
persecutions  than  those  visited  upon  their  English 
brethren.  But,  by  the  renewed  charter  of  the 
East  India  Company,  in  1813,  all  restrictions  to 
missionary  labor  were  removed ;  and  from  that 
period  to  the  present,  the  course  of  this  great 
cause  has  been  steadily  onward. 

The  fi  'st  mission  in  Burmah  was  established  by 


316  Christian  Missions. 

Dr.  Judson,  in  1813,  at  Rangoon ;  the  first  Ameri- 
can mission  in  Ceylon,  by  Messrs.  Poor,  Meigs, 
Warren,  and  Richards,  in  1816,  at  Jaffna  ;  and  the 
first  American  mission  at  Madras,  in  1836,  by 
Messrs.  Winslow  and  Scudder.  American  Luth- 
erans began  their  first  work  in  India,  in  1842; 
the  American  Presbyterian  Foreign  Board,  in 
1834 ;  the  United  Presbyterians,  in  1855 ;  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  1857  ;  the  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Missionary  Union,  in  1840  ;  and  the 
Freewill  Baptists,  in  1836.  The  London  Mission- 
ary Society  began  its  work  in  India,  in  1798 ;  the 
Wesleyans,  in  1816 ;  the  Church  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, in  1815 ;  the  General  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  in  1822  ;  the  Church  of  Scotland,  in  1829  ; 
the  Basle  Missionary  Society,  in  1834  ;  the  Gossner 
Missionary  Society,  in  1846 ;  the  Moravians,  in 
1855.  The  Liepzig  Lutherans,  Irish  Presbyterians, 
Presbyterians  of  Canada,  the  Welsh  Calvinists, 
and  several  other  societies  are  also  engaged  in 
active  efforts  for  the  Christianization  of  India, 
all  vieing  with  each  other  in  zeal,  activity,  and 
devotion  to  this  noble  work.  In  a  document  pre- 
pared and  printed  by  order  of  the  British  House  of 
Commons,  in  1873,  some  of  the  benefits  accruing 
from  these  labors  are  detailed,  as  follows : 


CATHACKS  (MALE  DANCERS),  AT  BHOPAL. 


Effects  of  Missions.  319 

"  The  Protestant  Missions  of  India,  Burmah, 
and  Ceylon  are  carried  on  by  thirty-five  societies, 
in  addition  to  local  agencies ;  and  now  employ  the 
services  of  six  hundred  and  six  foreign  mission- 
aries, of  whom  five  hundred  and  fifty  are  ordained. 
They  occupy  five  hundred  and  twenty-two  princi- 
pal stations,  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  subor- 
dinate stations.  Apart  from  their  special  duty  as 
public  preachers  and  pastors,  the  foreign  mission- 
aries constitute  a  valuable  body  of  educators  ;  they 
contribute  greatly  to  the  cultivation  of  the  native 
languages  and  literature  ;  and  all  who  are  resident 
in  rural  districts  are  appealed  to  for  medical  help. 
They  have  prepared  hundreds  of  works  suited  both 
for  schools  and  for  general  circulation  in  the  fifteen 
most  prominent  languages  of  India,  and  in  several 
other  districts ;  they  are  the  compilers  of  several 
dictionaries  and  grammars  ;  they  have  written  im- 
portant works  on  the  native  classics  and  the  system 
of  philosophy ;  and  they  have  largely  stimulated 
the  great  increase  of  the  native  literature  prepared 
in  recent  years  by  educated  native  gentlemen. 
A  great  increase  has  taken  place  in  the  number 
of  converts  the  last  twenty  years.  They  are 
now  at  least  five  hundred  thousand.  The  gov- 
ernment of  India  cannot  but  acknowledge  the 


320  Christian  Missions. 

great  obligation  under  which  it  is  laid  \yy  the 
benevolent  exertions  of  these  six  hundred  mis- 
sionaries, whose  blameless  example  and  self- 
denying  labors  are  infusing  new  vigor  into  the 
stereotyped  life  of  the  great  populations  placed 
under  English  rule,  and  are  preparing  them  to  be 
in  every  way  better  men  and  better  citizens  of  the 
great  Empire  in  which  they  dwell."  * 

To  all  this  may  be  added  the  wide  diffusion  of 
Christian  knowledge ;  the  arousing  of  the  Hindu 
mind  from  its  long  torpor  to  the  earnest  discussion 
of  the  merits  and  claims  of  Christianity ;  the  abo- 
lition of  the  suttee,  of  female  infanticide,  and 
hook-swinging,  except  in  districts  remote  from 
foreign  influence ;  the  loosing  of  the  bonds  of 
caste,  the  diminished  influence  of  Brahminical 
power,  and  the  desire  and  earnest  efforts  put  forth 
for  the  education  of  woman  during  the  present 
decade.  In  view  of  all  this,  and  much  that  can- 
not here  be  detailed,  it  is  evident  that  India's  long 
night  of  superstition  and  moral  ignorance  is  pass- 
ing away,  and  the  dawn  of  a  glorious  day  already 
at  hand. 


*  For  many  of  these  statistics,  the  writer  acknowledges  indebtedness  to  articles 
of  Rev.  S.  Hatchings  in  the  Missionary  Review. 


CHAPTER   X. 

EARLIEST     HISTORY. 

THE  early  history  of  India,  like  that  of  all 
oriental  nations,  is.  involved  in  much  obscu- 
rity. Their  own  records  furnish  nearly  all  the  in- 
formation now  obtainable  of  that  great  country 
during  the  first  centuries  of  its  existence  ; .  and  the 
fact  that  these  records  must  be  drawn  mainly  from 
their  poetical  works,  render  it  no  easy  task  to  sep- 
arate the  real  from  the  fabulous.  The  utmost 
efforts  of  such  indefatigable  oriental  scholars  as 
Sir  William  Jones,  Prinsep  and  Wilson,  have  not 
been  sufficient  to  open  to  us  all  those  sealed  por- 
tals of  the  past ;  but  they  do  enable  us  to  fix  with 
considerable  accuracy  the  dates  of  many  leading 
events.  Sir  William  Jones  says  that  "  India  and 
Persia,  and  all  the  South  of  Asia,  were  but  parts 
H.  I.— 21  321 


322  Earliest  History. 

of  one  great  empire  of  antiquity,  called  Iran, 
which  was  the  earliest  settled  in  the  world." 
Indian  traditions  preserve  the  name  of  Merit,  a 
planter  of  vines  and  cultivator  of  the  soil.  This 
probably  is  the  account  they  had  somehow  received 
of  Noah's  vine  planted  after  the  subsidence  of  the 
flood.  The  Agni  Purana  says :  "  When  the  flood 
was  gathering,  a  fish  fell  into  Meru's  hand.  It 
quickly  grew  into  an  enormous  size,  and  had  a 
horn  on  which  to  support  an  ark.  Into  this  ark, 
Meru,  with  his  sons  and  their  women,  and  the  seed 
of  every  thing  living  entered,  and  were  supported 
on  the  horn  of  the  great  fish  throughout  the  great 
flood."  This  same  Meru  was  called,  like  the 
Egyptian  Menes,  the  "  Son  of  the  Sun,"  the  name 
that  till  to-day  the  Rajputs  lay  claim  to.  Of  late 
years,  Mr.  Prinsep  has  discovered  a  key  by  which 
may  be  read  many  inscriptions  on  the  columns  and 
walls  of  rock-cut  temples,  which  formerly  set  at 
nought  all  attempts  to  decipher  them.  The  lan- 
guage has  turned  out  to  be  Bali,  the  sacred  lan- 
guage of  India,  and  indeed  of  all  Southern  Asia  ;  a 
dialect  which  is  now  engaging  the  attention  of 
many  oriental  scholars,  by  the  light  of  which, 
many  hitherto  obscure  portions  of  Hindu  history 


The  Ramayana.  325 

may  be,  in  a  measure,  comprehended.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  while  Joseph  was  ruling  under 
Pharoah,  in  Egypt,  there  were  organized  govern- 
ments in  India,  and  reigning  princes  who  could 
bring  large  armies  into  the  field. 

The  "  Ramayana,"  an  epic  poem  detailing  the 
adventures  of  the  god  Rama,  though  containing, 
without  doubt,  many  fables  and  exaggerations,  is 
also  a  shadowing  forth  of  events  and  exploits  that 
actually  took  place.  The  first  mention  made  of  this 
nation,  locates  them  in  a  tract  of  land  between  the 
rivers  Sersuti  and  Caggar,  distant  from  Delhi  not 
more  than  one  hundred  miles  to  the  northwest. 
It  then  bore  the  iiame  of  Brahmaverti,  and  is 
described  as  the  abode  of  the  gods,  "  the  scene  of 
the  adventures  of  princes,  and  the  residence  of 
famous  sages."  Moses  describes  the  precious 
stones  of  India  in  the  requisitions  for  making  the 
tabernacle ;  and  some  writers  have  believed  that 
the  term  "  shittim-wood,"  in  our  version  of  the 
Bible,  which  the  "  Seventy  "  rendered  "  Incorrupt- 
ible-wood," may  have  referred  to  the  precious  Aloe 
wood  found  near  Cape  Comorin.  This  is  the  most 
precious  of  all  woods,  obtainable  only  at  a  few 
places  in  the  world,  and  worth,  even  in  our  own 


326  Earliest  History. 

clay,  its  weight  in  gold.  The  Phoenicians  and 
Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  successively  re- 
paired to  the  coasts  of  Malabar  for  their  drugs, 
indigo  and  gum-lac,  for  their  ivory,  mother-of- 
pearl  and  precious  stones.  Herodotus,  also  with 
Strabo,  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  confirm  the  accounts  of 
the  great  antiquity  of  India.  According  to  the 
"Vishnu  Purana,"  their  territory  was,  at  the  first, 
only  sixty-five  miles  long  and  forty  broad  ;  but  at 
an  early  period  from  their  first  records  the  Hindus 
appear  to  have  enlarged  the  bounds  of  their  king- 
dom, making  it  include  the  present  districts  of 
Oude,  Agra,  Allahabad,  Lahore  and  Delhi. 

The  city  of  Oude  was  then  called  Aoudha,  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  in  the  early  days. 
Hindu  records  state  that  there  were  born,  as  em- 
anations from  Brahma,  two  princes,  whose  descend- 
ants were  known  as  the  "solar  and  lunar  races." 

Various  fabulous  and  most  extravagant  accounts 
of  sixty  races  of  these  are  given  ;  but  it  is  only  in 
following  the  details  of  the  Ramayana,  or  the 
exploits  of  Rama,  that  any  available  facts  are 
reached.  Rama,  the  hero  of  this  oriental  Epic, 
seems  to  have  been  a  real  personage,  one  of  the 
earlier  kings  of  Oude,  who  having,  after  the  fash- 


328  Earliest  History. 

ion  of  many  oriental  monarchs,  resolved  on  a  pro- 
tracted period  of  penance,  retired  with  his  beauti- 
ful wife  Sita,  to  the  seclusion  of  the  forests  of 
Aoudha.  The  Island  of  Ceylon,  which  claims  to 
date  back  its  historical  records  to  the  twenty-fourth 
century  before  our  era,  was  supposed  in  the  former 
days  to  have  been  a  portion  of  the  mainland,  and 
to  have  been  inhabited  by  a  race,  of  demons  who 
made  constant  depredations  into  the  surrounding 
country.  On  one  of  these  marauding  expeditions 
Ravana,  the  king  of  Ceylon,  chanced  to  meet  the 
beautiful  queen  Sita,  and  becoming  desperately 
enamored  of  her  charms,  carried  her  off  to  his 
capital  at  Lanka.  Rama,  stung  to  desperation  by 
the  loss  of  his  beloved  wife,  and  fearing  to  en- 
counter this  company  of  "  demons,"  with  only  his 
own  small  army,  called  to  his  aid  Hanouman,  the 
king  of  a  race  of  wonderful  monkeys.  Uniting 
their  powers,  the  allies  marched  with  all  possible 
speed  across  the  Deccan,  and  on  reaching  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  mainland  found  a  miraculous  bridge 
had  been  thrown  across  the  Pambero  Passage  for 
their  special  accommodation.  Upon  this,  they 
crossed  into  Ceylon,  surprised  Ravana  just  as  he 
was  entering  Lanka  with  his  valued  prize,  rescued 


The  Ramayana.  829 

the  queen  after  a  terrible  battle,  and  were  about 
setting  out  on  their  return,  when  Rama  accident- 
ally killed  his  brother  Lachman.  Overwhelmed 
with  despair  he  threw  himself  into  the  water,  and 
dying  was  reunited  to  the  divinity.  The  powerful 
monkey-king  fell  heir  to  the  beautiful  Sita,  and 
carried  her  off  to  his  own  realm,  despite  the  deter- 
mined resistance  of  Havana  and  his  "  demons." 

Amid  this  maze  of  the  marvellous  and  the  ro- 
mantic, there  is  doubtless  a  broad  vein  of  truth. 
This  invasion  of  Ceylon  by  the  king  of  Oude,  it 
is  believed,  took  place  about  the  fourteenth  cent- 
ury before  our  Lord's  advent,  and  that  Rama  did 
not  live  to  return  from  his  unfortunate  expedition, 
while  the  queen  Sita,  the  innocent  cause  of  all  the 
trouble,  was  carried  off  an  unwilling  captive  by 
the  ally  of  her  former  lord.  The  "  monkeys " 
were  probably  a  race  of  wild  mountaineers  pressed 
suddenly  into  service  by  king  Rama  to  aid  him  in 
his  hurried  pursuit ;  and  the  "  demons  "  may  have 
been  so  called  by  the  infuriated  husband  either  on 
account  of  this  lawless  act  of  violence,  or  from 
their  dark  complexions. 

Little  is  recorded  of  the  immediate  successors  of 
Rama,  or  of  the  domain  they  ruled  over,  beyond 


330  Earliest  History. 

the  fact  of  the  removal  of  the  capital  from  Oude 
to  Canouj." 

Another  great  Indian  Epic,  the  "  Maha  Barat" 
deals  somewhat  more  in  facts,  with  perhaps  less 
commingling  of  the  marvellous  and  fictitious  than 
the  Ram  ay  ana. 

There  are  loosely-written  records  of  a  great  war 
between  two  rival  branches  of  the  house  of  Ha,s- 
tinapura,  supposed  to  represent  the  country  lying 
on  the  Ganges,  northeast  of  Delhi.  Into  this  quar- 
rel most  of  the  princes  of  India  seem  to  have 
been  drawn,  and  the  war  appears  to  have  raged 
with  great  fury  for  a  considerable  period,  and  to 
have  devastated  some  of  the  most  flourishing  dis- 
tricts of  Hindustan.*  The  Pandu  branch  were 
the  victors  ;  but  they  were  so  impoverished,  both 
in  men  and  money,  by  this  violent  and  protracted 
contest  that  they  did  not  for  several  generations  re- 
cover their  former  position.  The  precise  date  of  this 
war  is  not  known  ;  but  it  may  be  safely  placed 
within  the  fourteenth  century  before  our  era.  Of 
the  succeeding  Pandu  kings  we  know  almost  noth- 
ing—  the  records,  such  as  they  are,  not  agreeing 
even  as  to  the  number,  some  placing  it  at  twenty- 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


SIDE   VIEW    OF   THE   PAL    PALACE,   AT   GWALIOB.  331 


G-audama.  333 

nine,  and  others  swelling  the  list  to  sixty-four. 
Despite  this  paucity  of  details  in  regard  to  the 
kings,  there  may  be  gleaned  from  the  pages  of  the 
"  Maha  Barat"  many  interesting  facts  concerning 
the  relative  position  of  the  several  kingdoms  and 
independent  states,  their  social  condition,  and 
gradual  development.  Six  distinct  kingdoms  are 
mentioned  in  this  part  of  India,  most  prominent 
among  which  is  the  sovereignty  of  Magada,  whose 
king,  at  the  time  of  the  great  war,  was  Maha-Deva  ; 
and  from  his  reign  down  to  A.  D.  436,  there  is  an 
unbroken  line  of  kings.  Of  most  of  them,  how- 
ever, little  has  come  down  to  us  besides  their 
names.  In  this  kingdom  of  Magada,  South  Behar, 
Gaudamd,*  the  founder  of  the  Buddhistic  religion, 
was  born,  B.C.  656.  He  was  the  only  son  of  the 
reigning  king;  a  prince  of  noble  endowments, 
physical,  mental  and  moral,  and  well  fitted  for  the 
important  part  he  was  to  perform  in  the  affairs  of 
his  country  and  the  world.  He  was  about  forty 
years  of  age  when  he  began  to  preach  his  new 
doctrines ;  and  from  that  time  to  the  close  of  his 
life,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-four,  he  seems 
to  have  been  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  reform  the 

*  Regarding  Gaudama,  see  "  The  Light  of  Asia,"  by  Edwin  Arnold. 


334  Earliest  History. 

clergy,  and  to  inculcate  among  the  people  honesty, 
virtue,  truth,  temperance  and  kindness,  his  own 
life  furnishing  the  best  commentary  on  his  teach- 
ings. There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  ever 
claimed  to  be  more  than  a  religious  teacher,  and  it 
was  not  until  after  his  death  that  he  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  god.  His  death  occurred  B.  c.  572. 
This  portion  of  Hindu  history  is  certainly  no 
fable,  nor  the  hero  a  myth,  but  all  the  details  of 
his  life  are  well  authenticated  facts.  It  is  in  the 
Pali  or  Bali,  the  ancient  language  of  Magada, 
that  the  sacred  books  of  the  Buddhists  are  always 
written. 

Alexander's  invasion  of  the  Punjaub,  by  break- 
ing  the  power  of  the  Brahmins,  tended  to  the 
increase  of  Buddhism,  at  least  for  a  time.  The 
Pandu  dynasty  of  Magada,  in  South  Behar,  was 
overthrown  by  Chandragumpta,  a  Soudra,  or  low- 
caste,  who  murdered  the  reigning  king,  the  four- 
teenth of  his  line.  Sir  William  Jones  has  shown 
plainly  that  Chandragumpta  is  synonymous  with 
the  Sandrakottus  of  the  Greek  historians :  he  who 
freed  the  Punjaub  from  Macedonian  rule,  and  re- 
ceived Megasthenes  at  his  court  in  Pataliputra. 
About  the  year  B.  c.  310,  he  concluded  a  treaty 


Sandrakottus  335 

with  Seleucns,  one  of  Alexander's  successors. 
Through  his  origin,  as  a  Soudra,  the  Brahmins 
were  greatly  scandalized,  and  their  power  curtailed 
during  this  reign  and  several  succeeding  ones. 


CHAPTER  XL 

DECLINE  OP  THE   ARAB   POWER. 

DHARMASOKA,  the  grandson  of  Chandra- 
gumpta,  was  the  greatest  king  of  the  Maurya 
dynast}-,  and  the  first  who  seems  to  have  had 
any  real  title  to  be  called  lord  paramount,  or 
Emperor  of  India.  The  researches  of  Mr.  Prinsep, 
and  the  numberless  old  inscriptions  he  has  un- 
earthed from  various  remote  sections  of  the 
Empire,  have  settled  beyond  a  doubt  the  mooted 
question  in  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  dominion 
of  this  famous  king.  These  dominions,  as  shown 
by  indubitable  proof,  must  have  reached  from  far 
northward  of  Delhi  to  the  island  of  Ceylon  (the 
Taprobane  of  the  ancients),  and  embraced  a  wide 
extent  of  country  from  east  to  west.  The  same 

inscriptions   show   that   his   government   was   far 

336 


II.  I.— 22  MACSOLEUM   OF   THE    SCINBIAS,   AT    LASHKAR.  337 


338  Decline  of  the  Arab  Power. 

advanced  in  civilization  ;  and  many  ancient  edicts 
were,  found  for  the  establishment  of  hospitals  and 
dispensaries  in  distant  portions  of  the  realm,  and 
for  the  sinking  of  shafts  and  wells,  and  the  plant- 
ing of  shade  trees  along  the  public  highways,  for 
the  benefit  of  travellers.* 

Under  the  name  of  Piyadasi  (love-gifted)  this 
great  king  published  many  humane  edicts  ad- 
dressed to  his  people,  and  Avritten  so  that  they 
could  understand  them  in  the  ordinary  dialects  of 
the  country,  instead  of  Sanscrit  or  Bali  that  would 
have  been  intelligible  only  to  the  learned.  Many 
of  these  edicts  have  been  found  engraven  on  col- 
umns at  Delhi  and  Allahabad,  and  on  rocks  near 
Peishwar,  Guzerat  and  Orissa.  Under  the  com- 
mand of  king  Dharmasoka,  a  sort  of  church  council 
was  again  held  at  Pataliputra  to  endeavor  to  heal 
divisions  that  had  arisen  between  priests  of  dif- 
ferent orders,  and  to  harmonize  the  old  and  new 
creeds ;  and  also  to  correct  abuses  among  the 
clergy.  An  earthquake  occurring  at  the  close  of 
the  council,  it  was  regarded  as  an  approval  of  its 
decrees. 

None  of  the  writings  of  Buddha  dated  prior  to 

*  Malcolm  in  "  Indian  Mutiny  " 


Graudama.  339 

this  council  are  considered  valid.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  none  of  the  teachings  of  the 
Buddh  Gaudama  were  written  during  his  life- 
time ;  but  after  his  death,  by  his  disciples  and 
followers.  And  because  of  corruptions  that  had 
crept  in,  by  either  accident  or  design,  these  writ- 
ings were  all  carefully  examined,  and  the  decrees 
of  preceding  councils  modified  by  this.  This  king 
seems  to  have  very  heartily  approved  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Buddhism,  and  by  his  express  command 
priests  and  teachers  were  sent  far  and  wide,  pro- 
claiming the  new  faith.  Siam,  Burmah,  China, 
Ceylon,  Cashmere,  and  even  the  wilds  of  Kafiris- 
tan,  were  all  instructed  in  the  teachings  of  Gau- 
dama ;  and  this  mild,  peace-loving  system  carried 
the  elements  of  Indian  civilization  to  many  a 
savage  tribe  that  had  hitherto  been  noted  for  dark 
and  cruel  practices. 

After  the  death  of  Dharmasoka,  the  Magada 
kingdom  seems  gradually  to  have  declined  ;  and  in 
the  fifth  century  of  our  era  it  was  subjected  to  the 
kings  of  Canouj,  and  no  longer  regarded  as  a  sep- 
arate state.  Canouj  appears  to  have  been  not 
only  one  of  the  most  ancient  states  of  India,  but 
also  far  advanced  in  civilization  and  the  arts. 


340  Decline  of  the  Arab  Power. 

This  is  attested,  even  at  the  present  day,  by  the 
splendid  ruins  of  its  ancient  capital  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges.  In  the  former  days,  known  as 
Panchala,  Canouj  extended  from  Banar  and  Chum- 
bul  eastward  as  far  as  Nepal,  which  was  also  in- 
cluded in  its  territory. 

Scinde  is  spoken  of  at  the  date  of  the  Malm 
Barat  as  an  independent  kingdom.  It  was  still  so 
when  Alexander's  invasion  took  place,*  though 
divided  into  several  separate  states.  In  the 
seventh  century  it  was  reunited,  in  the  eighth  in- 
vaded by  the  Arabs,  in  the  ninth  retaken  by  the 
Rajputs,  and  A.  D.  1015  it  became  subject  to  the 
rulers  of  the  Ghorian  dynasty. 

Guzerat,  under  a  Rajput  race  of  rulers,  had  its 
capital,  in  the  second  century,  at  Balibi ;  but  in 
A.  D.  524  these  rulers  were  expelled  by  the  Indo- 
Bactrians,  for  a  brief  period,  recovering  sway  in 
531.  The  Balibi  princes  having  been  succeeded 
in  the  eighth  century  by  the  Chaura  Rajputs,  the 
capital  was  removed  to  Patan.  This  race  be- 
coming extinct  in  A.  D.  931,  was  succeeded  by 

*  The  conquest  of  India  by  Alexander  III.,  of  Macedon,  was  completed  B.C. 
327.  An  account  of  the  Asiatic  expedition  of  this  conqueror  is  given  by  Arria- 
nus,  the  friend  of  Epictetus,  who  wrote  also  a  work  entitled  Indica,  in  which  he 
gave  excellent  descriptions  of  the  interior  of  India  and  of  portions  of  its  coast. 


Aboriginal   Inhabitants.  341 

the  Rajput  tribe  of  Salonka,  who  remained  in 
power  for  about  three  centuries.  It  was  subju- 
gated by  the  Mohammedans  in  1297. 

Vicramaditya,  one  of  the  kings  of  Malwar, 
seems  to  have  acquired  vast  dominions,  extending 
his  rule  over  nearly  the  whole  of  India ;  but  the 
Mohammedan  invasion,  when  it  swept  over  Hin- 
dustan, carried  everything  before  its  crushing 
power. 

The  aboriginal  .  inhabitants  of  the  Deccan  are 
said  to  have  been  foresters,  and  wild  mountain- 
tribes,  leading  a  lawless  and  marauding  life.  But 
this  was  probably  at  a  remote  period,  for  the 
Greeks  mention  only  an  advanced  civilization  in 
their  notices  of  Southern  India.  Of  all  the  States 
of  the  Deccan,  Paudya  and  Chola  are  most 
ancient,  the  latter  including  at  one  time  a  large 
portion  of  the  Carnata. 

From  the  Maha  Barat,  we  learn  that  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Orissa  was  for  a  long  period  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition,  and  that  it  was  occupied  suc- 
cessively by  Salivahana  and  Vicramaditya.  Later, 
the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Kesari 
race,  with  constantly  recurring  wars,  then  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Rajputs  and  Talingas,  re- 


342  Decline  of  the  Arab  Power. 

spectively,  and  about  the  year  1590,  it  Avas  annexed 
by  Akbar  to  the  empire. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  whole  history  of  India, 
from  very  remote  ages,'  has  been  one  of  almost 
continuous  war  and  bloodshed,  foreign  incursions 
and  domestic  brawls  —  the  decline  of  one  empire 
or  dynasty  and  the  rise  of  another.  Its  later  his- 
tory is  but  a  repetition  of  the  earlier.  First 
shaken  by  Persian  invasions,  then  a  prey  to  the  in- 
vincible Macedonians  under  Alexander  ;  next  par- 
alyzed by  the  Moslem  zealots  of  Mahmoud  of 
Ghuzni ;  and  again  trampled  by  the  Tartan  hosts 
of  Janghis  Khan,  till  finally  crushed  beneath  the 
incubus  of  the  great  Mogul  dynasty  of  the  re- 
nowned Tamerlane. 

The  Moors,  during  their  palmy  days,  fed  upon 
India,  Venice  grew  rich  on  her  wealth,  the  Portu- 
guese opened  the  highway  by  a  new  route  to  the 
same  precious  mine,  the  Dutch  followed  suit,  and 
England  was  not  slow  to  enter  the  lists.  The  end 
is  not  yet. 

Powerful  as  the  Mahrattas  afterward  became, 
and  extensively  as  their  language  is  spoken,  we 
find  less  of  them  in  the  early  times  of  India  than 
of  almost  any  other  race.  Until  mentioned  by 


Alexander  in  India.  345 

Mohammedan  writers  after  the  conquest,  there  was 
little  to  mark  their  existence  save  the  bare  men- 
tion of  their  capital.  Tagara,  as  a  place  of  some 
importance,  and  even  of  this  the  site  has  long 
since  been  lost. 

When  Alexander  first  turned  his  attention  to 
India,  the  flourishing  condition  of  the  whole  coun- 
try was  evidently  a  matter  of  surprise  ;  the  im- 
mense wealth  of  native  princes,  their  settled 
government,  the  advances  made  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  the  forces  Indian  kings  were  capable  of 
bringing  into  the  field,  the  excellence  and  variety 
of  their  weapons,  and  the  domestic  and  social 
habits  of  the  people,  were  all  very  much  as  found 
in  our  own  day,  and  very  far  in  advance  of  the 
majority  of  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Alexander 
evidently  did  no  more  than  touch  upon  the  out- 
skirts of  the  great  country.  Having  checked  the 
advance  of  his  immense  army  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hyphasis,  with  scarcely  a  glance  at  the  broad  land 
outspread  before  him,  his  steps  were  bent  toward 
the  southwest,  and  passing  onward  between  the 
desert  and  the  Indus,  he  bade  India  a  final  adieu, 
leaving  only  a  few  garrisons  behind  him,  and  one 
or  two  kings  and  chiefs  allied  to  his  government. 


346  Decline  of  the  Arab  Power. 

Among  the  latter,  was  the  celebrated  Porus,  whom 
he  first  vanquished,  severely  wounding  him  in 
battle,  and  then  received  as  an  ally. 

Though  as  early  as  the  reign  of  the  Calif  Omar 
there  were  frequent  incursions  of  Arabs  into  the 
Scinde  country,  it  was  only  as  piratical  parties 
bent  on  plunder ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  year 
664  A.  D.  that  there  was  any  regularly  organized 
expedition  of  Arabs  against  India  for  purposes  of 
conquest.  At  this  period  the  Arabs  penetrated 
into  the  Afghan  country  as  far  as  Cabul,  made  its 
ruler  a  tributary  governor,  and  then,  with  a  por- 
tion of  their  troops,  under  the  command  of  the 
celebrated  Mohalib,  they  pushed  on  to  Mooltan, 
sacked  the  city,  and  carried  off  a  large  body  of 
prisoners.  Shortly  after  this,  a  piratical  vessel 
putting  into  one  of  the  seaports  of  Scinde,  and 
committing  some  depredations,  was  seized  by  the 
inhabitants  and  destroyed.  This  excited  the 
vengeful  ire  of  the  Arabs,  and  led  to  the  invasion 
of  the  country  by  a  large  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  Mohammed  Casim,  the  younger  son  of  the 
Governor  of  Basra.  The  youthful  warrior  gained 
a  complete  victory,  captured  the  fortified  city  of 
Dewal,  made  the  Rajah's  son  prisoner,  and  devas- 


A  Heroine.  347 

tated  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the  capital. 
Here  the  Rajah  of  Daher,  with  fifty  thousand  men 
and  a  large  body  of  elephants  opposed  him  ;  but 
met  complete  defeat,  in  consequence  of  a  rout 
caused  by  the  wounding  of  the  Rajput's  elephant 
under  him,  and  the  wild  scene  of  confusion  that 
followed.  Daher  acted  with  distinguished  valor, 
but  finding  it  impossible  to  retrieve  his  lost  fort- 
unes, he  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and 
fell  covered  with  wounds.  His  wife,  with  wonder- 
ful bravery,  endeavored  to  rally  the  discomfited 
soldiers,  and  finding  this  impossible  she  took 
refuge  in  Brahmanabad,  and  held  the  city  for 
some  time,  under  great  odds.  Finding  their 
efforts  vain,  all  the  women  and  children  were  im- 
molated on  an  immense  funeral  pile,  and  the  brave 
garrison  of  Rajputs  rushed  out  and  met  death  at 
the  points  of  the  Arab  swords.  Some  few  who 
had  remained  within  the  fort  were  slaughtered 
without  mercy,  and  several  youths  carried  away 
captives.  Casim  met  with  little  opposition  in  his 
onward  progress,  and  was  not  only  rapidly  subdu- 
ing the  country  he  had  invaded,  but  establishing  a 
good  and  wise  administration  over  the  conquered 
territory,  when  his  successes  were  terminated  by 


348  Decline  of  the  Arab  Power. 

his  sudden  death.  Though  subsequent  expeditions 
were  less  successful,  the  Moslem  rule  in  Scinde 
continued  until  A.  D.  750,  when  the  united  forces 
of  the  Rajputs  and  Hindus  expelled  the  invaders 
from  the  country.  The  decline  of  the  Arab  power 
in  India  began  from  this  period,  and  was  never 
again  firmly  established. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE   SUPREMACY   OF   MAHMOUD. 

THE   demise  of   the   Calif  Haroun-al-Raschid 
was  followed  by  the  secession  of  Khorassan 
and  other  important  provinces,   thus  still  farther 
weakening   the   already   decaying    power   of    the 
Arabs  in  India. 

Among  the  petty  dynasties  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  the  Arab  dominions  were  the  Samanis, 
a  family  of  Bokhara  descent,  established  in  Kho- 
rassin,  over  which  they  had  ruled  for  more  than  a 
century.  Abdulmelek,  the  fifth  prince  of  the 
house  of  Samani,  had  in  his  family  a  Turkish  slave 
named  Alptegin,  who,  by  his  natural  abilities  and 
faithfulness,  so  won  the  esteem  of  his  master  as  to 
be  promoted  to  the  high  office  of  governor  of 
Khorassan.  This  command  he  held  till  his  master's 
death,  when,  having  in  some  way  offended  the  new 
349 


350  The  Supremacy  of  Mahmoud. 

ruler,  he  was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  and 
took  refuge  among  the  Gazni  hill  tribes.  These 
mountaineers  were  a  bold,  hardy  race,  eager  for 
adventures,  and  never  afraid  to  use  their  own 
weapons  or  face  those  of  their  adversaries.  So, 
nothing  loth  to  place  themselves  under  a  leader  so 
daring  as  Alptegin,  they  gave  the  adventurer  a 
hearty  welcome,  and  enlisted  themselves  and  their 
swords  in  his  service.  To  the  day  of  his  death, 
which  occurred  fourteen  years  later,  he  maintained 
his  position  in  the  Ghaznivide  country  as  the  bold 
and  always  successful  leader  of  an  able  and  in- 
trepid band  of  Afghans  and  Mamelukes.  Among 
his  followers  was  an  especial  favorite,  a  soldier 
who  had  been,  like  himself,  a  slave,  and  like  him- 
self had  been  for  faithfulness  and  ability  promoted 
to  the  position  next  his  master's.  When  the  death 
of  Alptegin  occurred  in  A.  D.  976,  the  favorite 
Sibektegin  succeeded  to  the  mountain  throne  of  his 
late  master,  and  by  marrying  the  dead  chief's  daugh- 
ter, he  rendered  his  position  still  more  secure.  Lord 
Elphinstone  relates  a  popular  story  of  the  young 
Sibektegin,  while  yet  a  private  soldier,  that,  if  true, 
speaks  well  for  his  humanity  :  "  One  day,  in  hunt- 
ing, he  succeeded  in  riding  down  a  fawn,  but 


352  The  Supremacy  of  Mahmoud. 

when  he  was  carrying  off  his  prize  in  triumph  he 
observed  the  dam  following  his  horse,  and  showing 
such  evident  marks  of  distress,  that  he  was  touched 
with  compassion,  and  at  last  released  his  captive, 
pleasing  himself  with  the  gratitude  of  the  mother, 
that  several  times  turned  back  to  gaze  at  him  as 
she  went  off  to  the  forest  with  her  fawn.  That 
night,  t,he  Prophet  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream, 
and  told  him  that  God  had  given  him  a  kingdom 
as  a  reward  for  his  humanity,  and  enjoined  him 
not  to  forget  his  feelings  of  mercy  when  he  came 
to  the  exercise  of  power." 

Shortly  after  the  accession  of  Sibektegin  to.  the 
throne  of  his  mountain  kingdom,  his  territory  was 
invaded  by  Jeipal,  the  Rajah  of  Lahore,  at  the 
head  of  a  large  army.  The  Hindu  Princes  on  the 
east  of  the  Indus  had  become  restive  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  Moslem  power  so  contiguous  to  their 
own  country,  and  determining  to  drive  out  the  in- 
truders, the  Rajah  of  Lahore  had  taken  the  initia- 
tive, while  others  were  to  follow  him  to  the  field. 
But  just  when  the  Indus  had  been  crossed,  and  he 
was  approaching  Gazni,  a  fierce  storm  of  hail  and 
wind  came  on,  in  the  midst  of  which  he  encoun- 
tered Sibektegin  and  his  hardy  warriors.  A  fierce 


I  _23 


IMPERIAL    DURBAR—  DRESS    RECEPTION. 


Sibektegin  Victorious.  355 

encounter  ensued,  in  which  the  Hindus,  unused  to 
cold  and  to  mountain  tactics,  got  the  worst  of  the 
fray,  and  Jeipal  was  compelled  to  treat  with  his 
adversary  on  the  latter's  own  terms,  which  were 
the  payment  on  the  spot  of  fifty  elephants  and 
the  forwarding  on  the  Rajah's  return  of  a  large 
sum  of  money.  The  elephants  were  handed  over 
as  stipulated ;  but  the  money  the  Rajah  refused  to 
forward,  when  safe  within  his  own  lines.  The 
Tartar  chief  declining  to  pocket  such  an  insult 
crossed  the  Indus  at  the  head  of  an  immense 
force ;  but  Jeipal  met  him  with  one  much  more 
numerous,  having  summoned  to  the  defence  of 
their  common  cause  the  Rajahs  of  Delhi,  Ajmere, 
Calingar,  and  Canonj,  their  united  forces  number- 
ing a  hundred  thousand  cavalry,  and  a  vast  army 
of  foot  soldiers.  But  numbers  availed  nothing 
against  the  determined  valor  and  perfect  discipline 
of  Sibektegin's  splendid  army.  The  Hindus  suf- 
fered a  terrible  defeat,  and  fled  precipitately  from 
the  field,  pursued  hotly  by  Sibektegin  as  far  as  the 
Indus,  where  he  at  once  established  his  authority, 
leaving  a  governor  and  a  numerous  body  of  troops 
in  command  of  the  Peishwar  region. 

Sibektegin  might  have  carried  his  success  farther, 


356  The  Supremacy  of  Mahmoud. 

but  he  was  summoned  at  this  time  to  aid  his 
former  masters,  the  Samauis,  in  subduing  their  re- 
bellious subjects  to  obedience.  This  had  scarcely 
been  accomplished  ere  Sibektegin's  aggressive 
measures  were  cut  short  by  his  sudden  death. 
His  son,  Mahmoud,  a  daring,  ambitious  spirit,  suc- 
ceeded him  with  the  title  of  Sultan,  and  began  at 
once  aggressions  on  his  Indian  neighbors.  Four 
expeditions  across  the  Indus  followed  each  other 
in  quick  succession,  in  all  of  which,  Mahmoud  was 
victorious,  and  in  the  last  captured  immense 
amounts  of  treasure  and  precious  stones.  A  tri- 
umphal feast  followed,  during  which  the  Indian 
spoils  were  publicly  exhibited  on  tables  of  pure 
gold,  thus  adding  to  his  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  his 
people,  and  increasing  the  influence  he  wielded 
over  his  soldiers,  whose  admiration  for  their  dar- 
ling leader  was  such  that  they  would  have  followed 
him  to  the  world's  end.  His  next  step  was  the 
assembling  of  an  immense  force  of  one  hundred 
thousand  cavalry  and  twenty  thousand  foot,  with 
which  he  was  thundering  at  the  gates  of  Canouj 
before  his  approach  was  even  suspected.  The 
whole  of  the  Punjaub  was  soon  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Ghuzni,  and  the  conquest  of  Lahore 


358  The  Supremacy  of  Mahmoud. 

followed,  by  which  the  foundation  of  the  Ghuzni- 
vide  dynasty  in  India  was  securely  laid,  and  the 
Mohammedan  conqueror  brought  within  the  limits 
of  India.  This  was  in  A.  D.  1022,  and  two  years 
later  he  fitted  out  his  twelfth  and  last  expedition 
into  India.  The  object  of  this  was  the  great 
temple  of  Somnat,  situated  on  the  southern  border 
of  Guzerat,  and  noted  alike  for  the  immense 
wealth  belonging  to  its  shrine  and  for  the  very 
great  sanctity  that  attached  to  this  famous  temple. 
The  Hindus  offered  a  gallant  resistance ;  but  it 
availed  not,  and  their  gorgeous  temple,  with  its 
vast  treasures,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moslem. 
His  last  conquest,  that  of  Persia,  followed  quickly 
after  the  taking  of  Somnat ;  and  then,  ere  these  new 
laurels  had  lost  their  first  bloom,  the  founder  of  the 
Afghan-Indo  dynasty  sank  to  his  last  repose,  and 
another  reigned  in  his  stead. 

Mahmoud,  uniting  in  himself  the  characteristics 
of  a  great  general  and  a  great  sovereign,  was 
assuredly  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his 
times,  having  many  noble  and  striking  qualities 
not  very  common  in  those  days,  with  very  few  of 
the  faults  and  defects  most  prevalent  among  men 
in  power  at  the  period  in  which  he  lived.  Just, 


Ferdousi.  359 

considerate,  and  kind  to  all,  he  was  possessed  of  an 
innate  nobility  that  would  never  permit  him  to  be 
either  unduly  elated  at  his  own  good  fortune,  or 
unmindful  of  the  claims  of  those  vanquished. 
Among  other  noble  acts,  he  founded  in  his  capital 
an  excellent  college,  with  a  library  and  mu- 
seum attached,  and  appropriated  fully  fifty  thous- 
and dollars  a  year  to  the  payment  of  profes- 
sors and  the  maintenance  of  poor  students.  Lord 
Elphinstone  mentions  the  case  of  a  poor  woman 
who  complained  to  this  Sultan  of  the  loss  of  her 
only  son,  who  had  been  slain  by  robbers  in  a 
distant  part  of  the  empire.  The  Sultan  answered 
that  it  was  impossible  for  him  alwaj's  to  enforce 
the  laws  in  the  border-provinces,  so  far  removed 
from  his  immediate  control.  "  Why,  then,"  was 
the  spirited  reply,  "  do  you  take  more  territory  than 
you  can  govern."  Mahmoud,  it  is  said,  saw  the 
pertinence  of  the  reproof  and  instituted  more 
effective  measures  for  the  protection  of  his  sub- 
jects at  a  distance  from  the  capital. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  this  monarch  that  the 
eminent  poet,  Ferdousi,  flourished.  He  was  at- 
tracted to  the  court  of  Mahmoud  by  the  Sultan's 
general  patronage  of  literature,  but  for  some 


360  The  Supremacy  of  Mahmoud. 

reason,  Ferdousi  proved  almost  the  solitary  excep- 
tion. He  spent  thirty  whole  years  in  compos- 
ing a  grand  epic  of  sixty  thousand  couplets, 
a  work  that  has  been  deservedly  admired  alike  by 
oriental  and  occidental  scholars;  yet  he  received 
no  recompense,  and  it  .is  said,  actually  died  of 
want,  of  which,  however,  the  Sultan  was  not  cog- 
nizant, an  over-sensitiveness  restraining  the  poet 
from  any  revelation  of  his  needs. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

KHILIJI,    THE    SANGUINAKY. 

MOHAMMED,  Mahmoud's  second  son,  was 
by  his  late  father's  express  wish  placed  on 
the  throne  ;  but  the  popular  will  soon  deposed  the 
new  Sultan,  and  put  in  his  stead  the  more  warlike 
and  popular  brother.  Then  followed  five  short 
reigns,  including  those  of  the  two  sons  and  two 
grandsons  of  Mahmoud.  who  successively  suffered 
violent  deaths,  and  whose  entire  reigns  were  filled 
with  revolts,  insurrections,  and  murders.  The 
last  of  the  five,  Abdul  Rashid,  was  besieged  in 
Ghazni  by  a  revolted  chief,  captured,  and  mur- 
dered with  all  his  family.  The  successful  assassin 
placed  himself  on  the  throne,  but  was  deposed  and 
put  to  death  within  a  month,  and  the  army  began 

to  search  for  some  member  of  the  rightful  family 
361 


362  Khiliji,   The  Sanguinary. 

to  fill  the  vacant  seat.  After  considerable  delay, 
the  choice  fell  upon  Farokhsad,  a  young  prince 
whose  brief  life  had  been  spent  mainly  in  prison, 
in  consequence  of  the  civil  wars  and  jealousies 
that  had  rent  the  country  from  the  time  of 
Mahmoud's  death. 

During  these  troublous  years  nearly  all  the  ac- 
quisitions of  the  great  Mahmoud  had  been  lost; 
all  the  cities  east  of  the  Sutlej,  Lahore,  the  Pun- 
jaub,  and  Nargacot,  the  seat  of  the  magnificent 
temples  of  Sumnat  destroyed  by  Mahmoud,  had 
successively  passed  into  possession  of  their  former 
owners,  and  disaffection  everywhere  prevailed 
among  the  .Hindu  subjects  of  the  Afghan  em- 
peror, while  the  incursions  of  the  Seljuks,  a  power- 
ful tribe  of  Tartars  on  the  north  of  the  Oxus, 
were  constantly  becoming  more  ominous  and 
harassing.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  country 
over  whose  affairs  the  young  Farokhsad  was  called 
to  preside :  and  though  his  brief  six  years'  reign 
was  quiet,  and  even  prosperous  compared  with  sev- 
eral that  had  preceded  his  accession,  he  fell  at 
last  by  the  hands  of  an  assassin.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded A.  D.  1058,  by  his  brother,  the  wise,  peace- 
loving  Ibrahim,  whose  peaceful  and  prosperous 


Ibrahim.  365 

reign  of  forty-one  years  was  fruitful  of  the  best 
results  for  his  country  arid  people,  but  leaves 
slender  material  for  the  historian's  pen.  Only  a 
single  military  expedition  of  any  note  is  recorded 
of  all  these  years  of  Ibrahim's  reign — an  expe- 
dition to  the  Sutlej,  resulting  in  the  capture  of 
several  cities  from  the  Hindus.  The  great  desire 
of  this  monarch  seems  to  have  been  for  peace, 
coupled  with  the  wise  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  his  realm,  the  happiness  of  liis  people,  and  the 
encouragement  of  learning.  He  died  A.  D.  1089, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Majsaud  II.,  whose  quiet 
reign  of  fifteen  years  was  spent  in  legislating  and 
improving  the  condition  of  his  subjects,  and  was 
marked  by  no  great  military  exploits.  Arslan  suc- 
ceeded his  father  for  a  few  months,  beginning  his 
brief  interval  of  power  by  imprisoning  all  his 
brothers,  and  ending  it  by  meeting  himself  a 
bloody  death.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Behram,  who  was  placed  by  the  Seljuk  Sultan  on 
the  throne.  During  a  reign  of  rather  more  than 
twenty  years  he  gathered  about  his  court  philos- 
ophers, poets,  and  learned  men,  by  whose  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  people  they  began  to  cul- 
tivate the  arts  of  peace,  and  no  longer  to  regard 


366  Khiliji,  The  Sanguinary. 

conquest  and  an  increase  of  territory  as  the 
chief  good  to  be  attained.  But  this  wise  and 
peaceful  reign  set  under  a  cloud  of  treachery  and 
blood  that  forever  obscured  its  early  lustre.  This 
dire  event  was  the  murder  by  the  king  of  his  son- 
in-law,  Kutb-u-din,  the  prince  of  Ghor,  a  crime 
that  provoked  the  vengeance  of  the  Ghor  princes, 
and  led  ultimately  to  the  murder  of  a  second 
prince,  the  brother  of  the  first.  As  the  conse- 
quence of  this  double  crime,  Behram  was  driven 
from  Ghazni  b£  Ala-u-din,  younger  brother  of  the 
murdered  Ghors,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  his 
Indian  possessions,  where  he  shortly  after  died  of 
grief.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Khosru,  who 
ruled  over  the  Indian  portion  of  the  Empire  from 
1124  to  1130,  while  Ala-u-din  reigned  at  Ghazni, 
neither  seeming  to  be  molested  by  the  other. 
Khosru  Malik  succeeded  his  father  Khosru,  enjoy- 
ing a  quiet,  tranquil  reign  of  twenty-seven  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  he  was  attacked  by  the  Ghor 
kings,  and  subsequently  defeated  and  slain.  Froir 
this  period,  A.  D.  1157,  the  kingdom  of  Lahore  was- 
again  annexed  to  the  Ghaznivide  territory,  gor  . 
erned  by  the  new  line  of  kings,  beginning  with 
Gheias-u-din,  the  "  Ghorian  Sultan  of  Ghazni  and 


Grheias-u-din.  367 

Lahore."  This  reign  lasting  forty-five  years,  was 
productive  of  vast  results,  especially  in  the  con- 
quest of  Indian  territory.  The  Sultan  had  an 
able  assistant  in  his  brother  Shahib,  to  whose  great 
military  ability  is  due  the  success  that  attended 
the  Afghan  arms  at  this  period.  Delhi  was  the 
first  point  attacked,  and  resisted  bravely  in  the 
outset,  but  fell  at  last  with  their  Rajah  a  prisoner, 
and  a  terrible  rout  of  their  troops.  This  victory 
was  followed  by  others  in  quick  succession.  First 
Canouj,  then  Gwalior  in  Bundelcund,  portions  of 
Rohilcund,  and  the  next  year  the  rich  provinces  of 
Oudh,  Behar  and  Bengal. 

At  the  death  of  Gheias-u-din,  his  brother  suc- 
ceeded, in  the  year  1202,  to  the  throne  his  great 
military  exploits  had  made  so  glorious  during 
Gheias-u-din's  forty-five  years  of  sovereignty.  Sha- 
hib was  scarcely  established  in  his  kingly  position 
before  difficulties  in  his  western  possessions  in- 
volved him  in  war  with  the  Sultan  of  Kharism, 
which  terminated  unfavorably  for  Shahib-u-diu  ; 
and  while  preparing  for  a  new  expedition  he  was 
assassinated,  having  reigned  only  four  years. 

His  nephew,  Mahmoud  Ghori,  was  at  once  pro- 
claimed king,  A.  D.  1206  ;  but  his  rule  was  con- 


368  Khiliji,  The  Sanguinary. 

fined  to  the  Glior  country,  and  he  resigned  his 
claim  to  the  possession  of  India  by  voluntarily  re- 
linquishing the  insignia  of  royalty  to  Kutb-u-din, 
the  viceroy  of  India,  then  resident  at  Delhi.  Thus 
India  became  an  independent  power,  and  the  line 
of  the  "  Slave  Kings  of  Delhi,"  began  in  the  per- 
son of  Kutb-u-din. 

This  monarch  had,  in  his  youth,  been  a  slave  of 
the  great  general  Shahib,  who  highly  appreciating 
the  many  noble  qualities  of  his  bondsman,  had 
promoted  him  from  time  to  time,  till  he  was  ulti- 
mately made  viceroy  of  Delhi.  This  post  he  had 
filled  with  honor  and  ability  for  twenty  years, 
when,  by  the  voluntary  relinquishment  of  Mah- 
moud  Ghori,  he  became  king.  A  good  and  useful 
reign  of  four  years  was  terminated  by  the  lamented 
death  of  Kutb-u-din  A.  D.  1210,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Aran.  This  prince  was,  how- 
ever, shortly  after  deposed  for  inefficiency,  and 
Altamsh,  the  son-in-law  of  Kutb-u-din  was  put  in 
his  place. 

Altamsh,  too,  had  been  a  slave,  promoted  for  his 
talents  and  courage ;  and  the  confidence  of  the 
people,  in  placing  him  on  the  throne,  seems  to  have 
been  warranted  by  his  subsequent  career,  though 


Jenghis  Khan.  369 

few  details  have  come  down  to  us  beyond  the  re- 
volts of  Behar,  Malwar  and  Gwalior,  all  of  which 
were  successfully  quelled  by  the  decision  and 
firmness  of  the  sovereign.  It  was  during  the 
reign  of  Altamsh  that  the  raids  of  Jenghis  Khan 
and  his  Mogul  hordes  over  other  portions  of  Asia 
began  to  excite  alarm  for  the  safety  of  the  Indian 
monarchy.  Altamsh  died  at  Delhi,  about  A.  D. 
1234,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ruku-u-din,  a 
weak,  dissipated  prince,  who  was  shortly  deposed 
in  favor  of  his  sister  Rezia.  Prejudices  against 
her  sex  excited  factions,  followed  by  a  civil  war, 
during  which  the  Sultana  was  made  prisoner,  and 
wantonly  slain.  Two  short  reigns  of  Behrain  and 
Massaud  followed,  with  no  noteworthy  events  save 
the  attempted  invasion  of  India,  at  several  points, 
by  the  Moguls,  and  their  being  repelled  without 
serious  results. 

Nasir-u-din,  a  grandson  of  Altamsh,  was  the 
next  sovereign,  coming  to  the  throne  in  1246,  and 
reigning  for  about  twenty  years.  His  vizier,  a 
former  Turkish  slave  of  Altamsh,  seems  to  have 
been  the  real  head  of  the  government,  and  a  man 
fitted  by  his  brilliant  talents  for  the  important 

position.     He  promptly  quelled  revolt  whenever  it 
H.  I —24 


370  Khiliji,  The  Sanguinary. 

arose,  and  effectually  checked  the  advances  of  the 
Moguls  at  every  point.  In  a  word,  he  made  him- 
self so  necessary  to  his  country  that  at  the  death 
of  Nasir-u-din,  A.  u.  1266,  the  vizier,  Gheias-u-din 
Bulbun  stepped,  without  opposition,  into  the  vacant 
place.  His  reign,  lasting  twenty  years,  was  full  of 
insurrections  and  wars  within  and  without,  but  the 
vizier-king  seems  always  to  have  been  equal  to  the 
occasion,  and  his  administration,  though  marked 
with  severity  towards  all  he  suspected  of  being 
opposed  to  his  interests,  was  nevertheless  pro- 
motive  of  the  prosperity  and  aggrandizement  of 
the  country. 

His  successor,  Kai-Kobad,  was  the  last  of  the 
"  Slave  Kings,"  and  reigning  but  a  short  time,  was 
followed  by  three  monarchs  of  the  house  of  Khiliji. 
The  reigns  of  these  kings  were  a  succession  of 
plots,  intrigues  and  murders,  but  were  marked 
also  by  several  great  military  exploits.  During 
the  reign  of  the  second  of  the  Khiliji  sovereigns, 
Allah-u-din,  several  of  the  independent  Rajahs 
were  reduced  to  subjection  and  compelled  to  pay 
tribute ;  and  the  Moguls  of  his  army,  to  the 
number  of  fifteen  thousand,  were  dismissed  from 
his  service  and  driven  from  the  country.  This 


Conquest  of  Malabar.  371 

measure,  hailed  at  first  as  one  promising  only 
good  to  the  Indian  people,  was  afterwards,  no 
doubt,  the  cause  of  more  vengeful  ire  on  the  part 
of  the  Moguls,  leading  them,  as  soon  as  they  had 
gained  a  footing  on  Indian  soil,  to  greater  cruelties 
and  excesses  than  they  might  otherwise  have  com- 
mitted. 

The  death  of  Allah-u-din,  which  occurred  in 
A.  D.  1316,  was  believed  to  have  been  occasioned 
by  poison  administered  by  his  favorite  general, 
who  immediately  had  the  infant  son  of  Allah  pro- 
claimed king.  This  was,  however,  declared  invalid 
by  the  nobles  and  army  of  Delhi  who  cuised 
Mubarik,  the  eldest  son  of  their  late  king,  to  be 
crowned  with  all  due  honors ;  the  child,  who  had 
been  the  puppet  of  the  suspected  general,  was  pri- 
vately executed,  and  tranquillity  was  for  the  time 
restored. 

The  conquest  of  the  whole  Malabar  country 
was  the  first  act  of  the  new  king,  covering  his 
name  with  glory  ;  but  the  next  step,  that  of  ap- 
pointing as  his  chief  officer  a  low  Hindu  named 
Mallek  Khosru,  cost  him  first  the  confidence  of  his 
people,  and  then  his  own  life.  Mallek  conspired 
against  his  royal  master,  and  before  his  designs 


372  Khiliji,   The  Sanguinary. 

were  even  suspected,  he  had  taken  the  lives  of 
King  Mubarik  and  every  member  of  the  royal 
family.  The  traitor  was  executed  of  course,  and 
his  adherents  disbanded  and  banished  from  the 
country.  But  the  throne  was  vacant,  the  royal 
house  of  Khiliji  was  extinct,  and  a  new  dynasty 
was  to  be  inaugurated  —  that  of  the  House  of 
Tocjhlak. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE   TOGHLAK   DYNASTY. 

AFTER  the  assassination  of  Mubarik  and  his 
family,  the  extermination  was  so  complete 
that  it  became  necessary  to  elect  a  king  from 
another  family :  and  the  choice  of  the  nobles  fell 
upon  one  of  their  own  number,  Gheias-u-din 
Toghlak,  then  governor  of  the  Punjaub.  He  had 
already  acquired  a  high  reputation,  not  only  for 
his  military  skill,  but  his  wise  statesmanship  as 
governor  had  won  for  him  a  wide-spread  confi- 
dence that  during  his  brief  reign  was  well-sus- 
tained. The  Moguls,  still  threatening  the  north- 
western border,  were  promptly  repulsed,  and 
another  line  of  ramparts  thrown  up  by  the  new 
sovereign  all  along  the  Afghan  border.  He  also 
annexed  the  territory  of  Dacca  to  his  dominion ; 

373 


374  The   TogUak  Dynasty. 

and  on  his  return  from  this  expedition  he  was 
welcomed  by  his  eldest  son,  in  a  new  bungalow 
erected  for  the  occasion,  under  the  pretext  of  do- 
ing honor  to  his  father  and  sovereign.  But  there 
were  strong  suspicions  of  premeditated  treachery 
on  the  part  of  the  son  who,  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  secured  a  diadem  for  himself.  Gheias-u-din 
had  reigned  only  four  years  ;  and  his  son,  Moham- 
med Toghlak,  succeeded  him  A.  D.  1325.  The  first 
acts  of  the  new  king  evinced  the  great  ability  for 
which  he  was  noted  ;  and  his  patronage  of  men  of 
learning  was  quite  in  accordance  with  his  fine  lit- 
erary tastes. 

An  army  of  Moguls,  who  had  effected  a  landing 
in  the  Punjaub,  were  bought  off  by  the  payment 
of  a  large  sum  of  money  ;  the  subjugation  of  the 
Deccan,  begun  by  the  father,  was  completed  by 
the  son,  and  good  order  was  instituted  in  every 
part  of  the  kingdom,  even  to  the  most  remote 
borders.  But  other  steps  followed  less  advan- 
tageous to  the  interests  of  the  country.  The  king 
invaded  Persia  with  a  large  army,  and  then  at- 
tempted the  conquest  of  China,  but  returned  from 
both  expeditions  suffering  from  terrible  defeats, 
and  the  loss  and  disaffection  of  a  large  portion  of 


Death  of  Mohammed.  377 

the   splendid  armies  with  which  he  had  set  out. 
To  meet  the  expenses  of  all  these  aggressive  meas- 
ures his  people  were  excessively  taxed,  and  cruelly 
oppressed ;  the  currency  was  altered  in  a  manner 
that  induced  general  discontent,  and  everywhere, 
during  the  next  dozen  years,  there  were   revolts 
and  outbreaks  among  his  subjects  that  kept  the 
monarch  busy  and  anxious.     Many  of  the  insur- 
rections he  succeeded  in  quelling  ;  but  the  people 
of  Bengal,    the    Carnatic,  and    Malabar    country, 
boldly  defied   the   authority   of    the    tyrant,    and 
maintained  their  independence.     In  the  midst  of 
all  this  disaffection  and  discord,  Mohammed  died 
suddenly,  A.  D.  1351,  after  a  busy  and   troublous 
reign  of   about   twenty-six   years,    during  which, 
despite  his  undoubted  ability  both  as  general  and 
statesman,  a  large  portion  of  the  territory  gained  by 
his  father  was  lost  to  the  crown.    Mohamm  ed's  death 
was  said  to  have  been  caused  by  a  surfeit  of  fish ;  but 
so  embittered  against  him  were  his  officers  and  the 
mass  of  his  people  that  there  existed  strong  suspi- 
cion of  poison  having  been  used  to  rid  the  country 
of  the   hated   tyrant.     As  he  left    no   immediate 
family,  his  nephew,  Firuz  Toghlak,  was  chosen  to 
succeed  him.      The  character  of   Firuz  seems   to 


378  The    Toghlak  Dynasty. 

have  been  different  in  every  respect  from  that  of 
his  uncle.  With  no  ambition  for  conquest  or  mili- 
tary glory,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  interests  of 
his  people  and  country  with  untiring  fidelity,  re- 
versing the  oppressive  acts  of  the  last  reign,  and 
seeking  rather  to  add  to  the  resources  of  the  king- 
dom than  to  its  territorial  extent.  His  long  reign 
of  nearly  forty  years  was  fruitful  of  results  in  the 
prosperity  and  happiness  of  all  classes  of  his  sub- 
jects. From  increasing  years  and  infirmity,  the 
cares  of  sovereignty  became  at  length  burdensome, 
and  twice  after  Firuz  had  passed  his  eighty-sixth 
year  he  resigned  the  reins  of  government  to  other 
hands,  but  was  compelled  to  resume  them  again. 
First,  his  vizier,  and  then  his  son  had  been  en- 
trusted with  the  administration,  but  both  proving 
unfaithful,  the  minister  was  banished,  and  the  son 
had  to  flee  for  his  life  from  the  just  indignation  of 
the  nobles ;  and  the  aged  king,  then  lacking  only 
a  year  or  two  of  ninety,  once  more  placed  himself 
at  the  helm  of  state.  When  his  death  occurred, 
about  the  year  1390,  the  succession  of  his  son,  who 
had  so  disgraced  his  position  previous  to  his 
father's  death,  was  opposed  by  the  nobles  ;  and  two 
grandsons  of  Firuz,  reigned  successively,  but  each 


Tamerlane.  379 

only  for  a  few  months,  after  which,  Nasir,  the 
reprobate  son  of  Firuz;  returning,  was  proclaimed 
king.  He  reigned  for  three  years,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son,  Humayun,  who  lived  only 
forty-five  days  after  his  accession,  and  was  followed 
by  his  brother,  Mahmoud,  A.  D  1394  ;  four  reigns 
between  the  death  of  Firuz  and  the  proclamation 
of  Mahmoud  having  filled  little  more  than  three 
and  a  half  years.  The  new  king  was  yet  a  minor 
when  he  ascended  the  throne,  and  the  country  was  in 
so  unsettled  a  state  that  when  the  states  of  Malwar, 
Guzerat,  and  Juanpoor  revolted,  the  king  had  no 
power  to  compel  their  allegiance,  and  the  speedy 
dissolution  of  the  empire  was  feared.  Before 
order'  could  be  restored  at  home  the  danger  from 
without,  that  had  been  so  long  impending,  was 
fully  realized.  The  great  conqueror,  Tamerlane  or 
Timur  Bee,  having  already  overrun  Persia  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  some  portions  of  Russia  and 
Siberia,  with  his  immense  hordes  of  Tartars,  now 
(A.  D.  1398),  turned  his  face  toward  India,  and 
sent  forward  his  grandson,  Fir  Mohammed,  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  main  body  of  the  invaders. 
The  whole  of  the  Punjaub  was  devastated  by 
these  lawless  Tartars,  and  the  fortified  city  of 


380  The   Toghlak  Dynasty. 

Moulton  occupied  by  Mohammed,  while  Tamerlane, 
after  effecting  a  passage  across  the  mountain  defiles 
and  crossing  the  Indus  at  Attok,  reached  Samana, 
having  cruelly  butchered  the  inhabitants  in  great 
numbers  in  every  town  through  which  ~ie  passed. 
He  next  united  his  forces  with  those  of  his  grand- 
son, and  marched  on  Delhi,  where  Mahmoud  was 
waiting  with  a  great  army  and  a  retinue  of  ele- 
phants to  receive  him.  But  though  the  Indian 
army  fought  bravely,  they  were  utterly  defeated, 
and  the  slaughter  was  immense.  Mahmoud  fled  to 
Guzerat,  where  he  was  hospitably  received,  as 
though  the  state  had  still  been  in  fealty  to  the 
crown  ;  but  the  shattered  army  submitted  to  the 
conqueror,  as  emperor  of  India,  and  made  terms  to 
remain  in  Delhi  after  his  proclamation.  The 
plunder  and  butchery  of  the  inhabitants  by  the 
Tartars  went  on  even  after  the  city  had  capitu- 
lated ;  and  historians  say  that  "  some  streets  were 
rendered  impassable  by  heaps  of  dead ;  and  the 
gates  being  forced,  the  whole  invading  army  gained 
admittance,  and  a  scene  of  the  utmost  horror  en- 
sued." Acquisition  of  territory  seems  to  have 
been  no  part  of  Tamerlane's  programme,  but 
merely  the  fame  of  a  conqueror,  with  such  treasure 


Lodi  Dynasty.  381 

as  he  was  able  to  carry  with  him  on  his  way  to 
meet  other  foes.  Leaving  Delhi,  and  taking  with 
him  all  the  booty,  he  could  collect,  and  a  long 
train  of  captives  of  all  ranks,  he  marched  up  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  across  Lahore  into  the 
Ghazni  country,  by  the  same  route  he  had  followed 
on  entering  India,  which  he  "found  a  garden  and 
left  a  desert,"  with  the  additional  bequests  of  fam- 
ine and  pestilence.  When  the  conqueror  was 
gone,  a  new  cause  of  dispute  and  even  bloodshed 
arose  as  to  the  occupancy  of  the  vacant  throne  ; 
but  Mahmoud  reasserted  his  claim,  and  assumed 
the  reins  of  government.  His  death  followed  in  a 
few  years,  and  with  him  ended  the  Toghlak 
dynasty.  Several  brief,  unimportant  reigns,  those 
of  Khizer  Khan  and  his  sons  and  grandsons,  fol- 
lowed, and  then  the  Lodi  dynasty  was  ushered  in 
by  the  accession  of  Behlol  Lodi,  a  governor  of  the 
Punjaub,  descended  from  an  Afghan  family  of 
rank,  whose  influence  had  been  sufficient  to  cause 
the  deposing  of  Seyd  Allah,  the  last  king. 

Behlol's  reign  of  twenty-eight  years  was  prosper- 
ous and  beneficial  to  the  country,  but  not  fruitful 
of  important  events.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
wise  and  prudent  son,  Secander,  whose  vigorous 


382  The    Toyhlak  Dynasty. 

policy  not  only  retained  intact  the  conquests  of 
his  father,  but  added  to  them  the  territory  of 
Behar.  The  great  fault  of  his  administration  was 
his  bitter  persecution  of  the  Brahmins,  an  evil 
that  was  zealously  prosecuted  by  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Ibrahim  Lodi,  who  came  to  the  throne  at 
the  death  of  his  father,  A.  D.  1516.  His  cruelty 
and  oppression  soon  drove  the  nobles  into  open  re- 
bellion, and  induced  them  to  invite  the  interfer- 
ence of  Baber,  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane,  then 
reigning  at  Ghazni.  Baber  very  willingly  re- 
sponded, and  at  the  head  of  a  well-appointed  army 
crossed  the  Indus.  Advancing  toward  Delhi,  he 
was  met  by  Ibrahim  with  an  army  in  numbers  far 
superior  to  his  own  ;  but  by  superior  tactics,  and 
better  disciplined  troops,  the  Tartar  chief  gained 
the  day,  and  Ibrahim  Lodi,  the  last  of  his  dynasty 
and  the  last  of  the  Afghan  race  of  Indian  mon- 
archs,  fell  on  the  battle-field,  leaving  Baber  in  quiet 
possession  of  the  throne  and  the  empire.  He  at 
once  decided  to  fix  his  court  at  Delhi,  and  to  live 
permanently  among  his  Indian  subjects,  hoping 
thereby  not  only  to  strengthen  his  position  but  to 
add  to  his  territory. 

Baber,  the  "  Tiger,"  of  mixed  Tartar  and  Mogul 


Saber,  the  Tiger.  385 

descent,  the  first  resident  emperor  of  Tartan  blood 
was  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  Tamerlane  on 
his  father's  side,  and  from  Jenghis  Khan,  the 
Mogul  conqueror,  on  his  mother's,  thus  uniting  in 
his  own  person  not  only  the  claims,  but  many  of 
the  talents,  with  the  indomitable  resolution  and 
untiring  perseverance  of  both  his  famous  ances- 
tors 

H.  I —25 


CHAPTER     XV. 

EUROPEAN    TRADE. 

BEFORE  entering  on  this  new  race  of  rulers, 
the  Tartan  Emperors  of  India,  let  us  pause 
to  look  at  the  beginning  of  European  intercourse 
with  the  people  of  that  great  country.  Though, 
as  before  stated,  India  sent,  even  in  the  days  of  the 
Patriarchs,  of  her  gold,  spices,  and  manufactures, 
for  the  supply  of  the  nations  of  Western  Asia, 
and  though  centuries  before  our  era,  there  seems  to 
have  existed  an  overland  communication  between 
India  and  Arabia  and  Persia,  yet,  to  the  times  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  his  eastern  expedition, 
India  remained  in  the  fullest  sense  a  terra  incog- 
nita to  the  people  of  Europe.  With  his  great 
conquests,  Alexander  carried  at  least  a  measure 
of  civilization ;  and  almost  our  first  glimpses  of  the 

386 


Alexander's   Conquests.  387 

rich,  hoary  lands  of  the  sun  were  the  reports  that 
floated  westward  with  the  return  of  the  Mace- 
donian army.  But  for  the  early  death  of  Alex- 
ander, an  empire  might  have  arisen  and  a  pros- 
perous trade  been  opened  at  once  as  the  fruit  of  his 
exploits.  As  it  was,  all  this  eastern  trade  remained 
in  the  hands  of  Arab  and  Egyptian  merchants  for 
several  centuries  longer;  and  the  route  was  mainly 
by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Nile,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  chief  ports  being  Berenice,  Coptos, 
and  Alexandria. 

There  were,  however,  two  other  outlets  for  this 
Indian  trade,  but  both  were  difficult  and  danger- 
ous routes,  and  the  traffic  limited.  The  first  route 
was  through  Persia  and  Arabia  to  the  Syrian  cities, 
the  only  halting-place  being  "  Tadmor  of  the 
Desert "  as  called  in  Bible  days,  or  Palmyra,  as 
known  to  us,  and  so  named  from  the  luxuriant 
growth  of  its  abundant  palms.  It  was  doubtless 
its  Indian  trade  that  raised  Palmyra  to  such  im- 
portance as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  imperial 
Rome,  and  provoked  the  destructive  war  that 
ended  in  the  capture  of  the  noble  queen,  Zenobia, 
the  devastation  of  the  grand  old  city,  and  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  trade  begun  in  the  days  of  the 


388  European  Trade. 

Patriarchs.  The  other  route,  and  one  still  used  to 
convey  to  Russian  cities  immense  quantities  of  the 
silks,  shawls,  muslins,  and  spices  of  India,  was  by 
the  rocky  passes  of  the  Hindu  Koorsh  Mountains 
and  Caspian  Sea,  and  thence  on  by  various  land  and 
water  routes  to  the  points  of  destination.  Trav- 
ellers by  both  these  routes  suffered  iii  those  lawless 
times  from  the  ravages  of  banditti,  and  the  con- 
quests of  the  Roman  emperors ;  and  for  a  time 
the  trade  greatly  declined,  but  it  was  revived 
by  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  from 
Rome  to  Constantinople,  and  later  by  the  invasions 
of  the  Saracens.  These  enterprising  conquerors 
were  active  in  forming  commercial  depots,  and  open- 
ing a  trade  where  natural  facilities  existed ;  but  were 
too  much  absorbed  in  military  operations  to  follow  up 
such  openings,  that  were  left  for  the  benefit  of  those 
less  shackled  with  conflicting  enterprises.  Turkish 
rulers  were  content  with  the  commercial  greatness 
of  their  capital  as  the  centre  of  trade  at  that 
period ;  the  bold  and  hardy  Arabs  had  revived 
their  trade  through  Egypt,  and  by  way  of  the  Red 
Sea  on  into  India ;  and  the  Venetians  in  Egypt 
were  beginning  to  share  in  the  Indian  trade,  when 
the  great  discoverers  of  the  fifteenth  century 


Vasco  de    drama.  389 

opened  a  new  world  for  commerce  as  for  other  im- 
portant enterprises. 

Christopher  Columbus,  searching  for  the  East, 
found  a  new  world  in  the  West ;  and  Diaz  found  a 
route  to  India  by  the  "  Cape  of  Storms."  Eleven 
years  later,  (A.  D.  1498),  while  the  Lodi  dynasty 
of  Afghan  Idngs  were  ruling  in  India,  the  first 
Portuguese  expedition  for  India,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Vasco  de  Gama,  sailed  from  Lisbon 
around  this  same  Cape  of  Storms.  Diaz  had  given 
this  name  in  consequence  of  the  terrible  stormy 
weather  that  had  so  nearly  made  shipwreck  of  hi.s 
little  fleet ;  but  De  Gama  found  favoring  breezes 
that  he  deemed  good  omens  of  future  success,  and 
so  conferred  the  new  cognomen  that  has  ever  since 
belonged  to  the  "  Cape  of  Good  Hope."  Ten  long 
months  from  the  sailing  of  Vasco  de  Gama's  fleet 
elapsed  before  it  anchored  in  the  roads  of  Calicut 
on  the  Malabar  coast ;  but  the  rich  cargo  of  beauti- 
ful India  goods  they  were  able  to  take  back  repaid 
the  navigators  for  all  the  dangers  they  had  braved. 
The  king  of  Portugal  was  jubilant  over  the  success 
of  his  first  venture  upon  the  eastern  seas  ;  but  the 
merchants  of  Egj-pt  and  Italy  looked  on  with  un- 
disguised alarm.* 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


390  European  Trade. 

The  monopoly  of  the  eastern  seas  was  plainly 
at  an  end.  Despite  the  complicity  of  Venetian 
merchants  with  Egyptian  Mamelukes,  despite  even 
the  opposition  of  the  buccaneering  Moorish  traders 
who  had  so  long  monopolized  the  commerce  of  the 
Indian  seas,  this  broad  field  for  national  and  in- 
dividual enterprise  was  now  open  to  the  competi- 
tion of  the  world.  King  Emmanuel  of  Portugal, 
whose  subjects  had  been  the  first  to  enter  the  field, 
was  aware  equally  of  the  advantages  and  the 
dangers  of  his  new  position  ;  and  every  fleet  went 
manned  and  armed  for  fighting,  as  well  as  for  trad- 
ing. The  expedition  commanded  by  Alvarez  de 
Cabral,  that  followed  that  of  De  Gama,  numbered 
thirteen  sail,  and  carried  upwards  of  a  thousand 
soldiers ;  and  De  Cabral  was  empowered  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  Zamorin  of  Calicut,  "  with  the  view 
of  obtaining  permission  to  form  a  settlement  for 
trading  purposes  within  his  territories."  This  he 
readily  accomplished  ;  a  treaty  was  arranged  be- 
tween the  Portuguese  settlers  and  the  Zamorin,  and 
the  former  had  already  opened  within  the  city  a 
factory  for  trade,  when  the  native  populace,  incited 
by  the  Moors,  attacked  the  little  colony  of  Portu- 
guese, and  cruelly  murdered  all  the  residents  of  the 


Calicut   Threatened.  393 

factory.  This  treachery  was  promptly  avenged  by 
De  Cabral,  who,  turning  his  guns  first  upon  the 
Moorish  vessels  lying  under  the  walls  of  Calicut, 
and  then  upon  the  defenceless  city,  nearly  annihi- 
lated both,  until  the  Zamorin  was  glad  to  purchase 
a  cessation  of  hostilities  by  a  new  treaty  far  more 
favorable  to  the  Portuguese  than  the  first  had 
been.  Besides  this,  the  promptitude  and  success  of 
this  operation  so  impressed  the  neighboring  princes 
that  they  readily  entered  into  friendly  treaties  with 
the  Portuguese  sovereign,  and  permitted  trading 
factories  to  be  established  all  along  the  Malabar 
coast,  giving  to  this  pioneer  nation  the  prestige 
and  supremacy  they  so  long  enjoyed. 

The  next  Portuguese  expedition  was  "a  fleet  of 
twenty  sail,  all  good  ships,  and  royally  found," 
under  the  command  of  Vasco  de  Garna,  who 
opened  friendly  relations  with  many  native  princes 
and  left  the  interests  of  his  government  in  India 
on  a  firmer  basis  of  prosperity  than  they  had  be- 
fore enjoyed.  The  inefficiency  and  maladministra- 
tion of  Loche,  the  officer  left  by  De  Gama  in 
charge  of  the  settlements,  soon  brought  trouble 
upon  the  little  colony  ;  but  prosperity  was  restored 
by  the  appointment  of  Albuquerque  as  Captain- 


394  •  European   Trade. 

general,  and  his  wise  and  prudent  administration. 
The  promulgation  of  a  papal  "  bull,"  couched  in 
most  arrogant  and  offensive  terms,  and  assigning 
to  the  king  of  Portugal  "  the  sovereignty  of  India 
with  all  its  people  and  possessions,"  so  excited  the 
just  indignation  of  those  proud  oriental  potentates, 
that  they  made  common  cause  with  each  other  and 
determined  on  the  utter  extermination  of  the  in- 
terlopers :  a  resolve  that,  but  for  the  wise  and  con- 
ciliatory conduct  of  Albuquerque,  would  probably 
have  been  carried  into  effect.  Under  the  excellent 
administration  of  this  able  superintendent,  not 
only  were  the  name  and  reputation  of  the  Portu- 
guese restored  to  their  old  footing,  but  new  acces- 
sions of  territory  were  made ;  Goa  was  taken,  and 
strongly  fortified,  and  many  powerful  native  princes 
offered  their  friendly  alliance,  while  the  Portuguese 
ports  were  filled  with  shipping  and  alive  with 
thrifty  trade.  The  death  of  Albuquerque,  a  man 
reverenced  and  esteemed  by  natives  as  well  as  by 
foreigners,  occurred  after  a  brilliant  rule  of  only 
five  years,  and  was  followed  by  the  advent  of 
officers  less  faithful  and  less  efficient,  greatly  to 
the  detriment  of  the  Portuguese  interests.  The 
death  of  king  Emmanuel,  and  the  accession  of  his 


The   Portuguese.  395 

successor,  was  succeeded  by  the  appointment  of 
the  veteran  De  Gain  a,  under  the  title  of  Count  de 
Vidigueyra,  to  the  Captain-generalship  of  the 
Indian  colony,  for  which  he  sailed  immediately  on 
his  third  and  last  Indian  campaign.  Though  he 
lived  but  three  months  after  his  arrival,  his  coming 
was  productive  of  the  happiest  results  ;  advantages 
that  were,  however,  soon  lost  by  the  misrule  of 
inefficient  governors,  till  the  once  prosperous  colony 
was  on  the  verge  of  dissolution.  Corruption  and 
oppression  ruled  in  high  places,  and  the  total  lack 
of  integrity  and  good  faith  shown  by  the  Portu- 
guese toward  their  Indian  allies  had  so  widened 
the  breach  between  them  that  reconciliation  seemed 
impossible ;  while  the*  notorious  cruelties  and 
oppressions  of  De  Souza  were  remembered  only 
with  threats  of  vengeance  by  both  natives  and 
Europeans.  War  had  already  been  declared 
against  the  Portuguese  settlers  by  the  Rajahs  of 
Guzerat  and  the  Deccan,  who  had  also  laid  siege 
to  one  of  their  towns,  when  the  opportune  arrival 
of  De  Castro  gave  a  new  aspect  to  affairs  in  gen- 
eral. The  new  viceroy  at  once  raised  the  siege, 
and  defeated  the  besieging  army  with  great  slaugh- 
ter, and  then  pushed  the  war  so  successfully  into 


396  European  Trade. 

the  enemy's  country  as  to  compel  the  sovereigns 
of  Guzerat  and  the  Deccan  to  sue  for  peace. 
This  decisive  action  towards  the  foes  of  his  coun- 
try was  followed  by  a  wise  and  conciliatory  policy 
that  made  the  viceroy  every  day  new  friends,  and 
so  reversed  the  state  of  anarchy  in  which  he  had 
found  the  colony,  that  "  never  at  any  other  period 
of  their  Indian  history  could  the  Portuguese  be 
said  to  have  attained  an  equal  measure  of  pros- 
perity as  during  the  wise  rule  of  De  Castro. 
Their  ports  were  crowded  with  shipping,  their 
factories  teemed  with  produce  and  merchandise, 
and  on  all  sides  were  heard  the  sounds  of  busy  in- 
dustry." De  Castro  seems  to  have  united  in  a 
wonderful  degree  the  excellences  of  two  rival 
professions  —  those  of  a  military  chieftain  and  a 
civil  ruler — in  both  of  which  he  was  alike  brill- 
iant and  exemplary.  His  famous  victory  over  the 
Moors,  at  Diu,  was  celebrated  by  the  poet  Camoens ; 
and  a  beautiful  statue  to  his  memory  was  erected 
at  Goa.  He  died  at  Goa,  A.  D.  1547,  during  the 
reign  of  Humayun,  the  father  of  Akbar  the 
Great. 

It  was  about  this   period   that  the  celebrated 
monk,  Francis  Xavier,  in  the  interests  of  Jesuit 


St.  Francis  Xavier.  397 

missions,  established  himself  in  Goa,  and  prose- 
lyted large  numbers  to  a  nominal  Christianity  in 
an  incredibly  short  period  of  time.  He  exerted 
also  a  wide  influence  in  political  matters,  and 
helped  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  civil  reform  in- 
augurated by  De  Castro.  But  after  the  death  of 
the  viceroy,  the  efforts  of  Xavier  were  not  suffi- 
cient to  check  the  tide  of  corruption  that  again 
overspread  the  land,  and  threatened  to  engulf  its 
very  existence  ;  a  calamity  that  was  hastened  by 
two  causes  of  very  opposite  character.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition 
at  Goa  —  that  engine  of  bigotry  and  evil  passions 
that  inflicted  upon  this  fair  land  tortures  and  suf- 
fering far  worse  than  those  of  heathenism ;  and 
that  made  the  very  name  of  Christian  an  offence 
and  a  reproach  to  its  friends,  and  a  bitter  taunt 
upon  the  lips  of  its  enemies.  The  Inquisition  had 
already  become  an  Indo-Portuguese  institution  in 
the  days  of  Don  Sebastian ;  but  by  the  accession 
of  the  bigoted  and  sanguinary  Philip  it  received 
a  terrible  impulse,  that  deluged  in  tears  of  blood 
one  of  earth's  fairest  domains,  and  caused  the 
native  converts  to  turn  with  horror  from  the 
bloody  standard  of  this  so-called  Christian  faith  to 


398  European  Trade. 

embrace  that  of  the  more  merciful  Moslem  or 
Hindu. 

The  other  cause  of  the  decay  of  Portuguese 
power  in  India  was  the  advent  of  Dutch  oriental 
enterprise,  and  the  formation  of  an  East  India 
Company,  for  the  protection  of  its  foreign  trade. 
The  prudent,  plodding  Hollanders  were  just  the 
people  to  profit  by  the  reports  that  soon  spread 
concerning  the  trade  and  possessions  of  the  Portu- 
guese in  India ;  and  they  at  once  fitted  out  and 
dispatched  a  fleet  of  merchant  ships  to  secure  a 
share  of  the  costly  spoils  of  the  Orient.  From 
the  arrival  in  India  of  this  first  armament  from 
Holland  may  be  dated  the  decline  of  the  Indo- 
Portuguese  Empire ;  while  the  power  of  the 
Dutch  increased  steadily,  and  waxed  stronger  with 
the  passing  years,  gaining  continually  in  favor  with 
the  native  princes,  especially  those  ruling  on  the 
Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts. 

In  the  very  footsteps  of  the  Dutch  came  the 
English,  the  fame  of  "  the  lands  of  the  sun  "  hav- 
ing reached  also  across  the  British  waters,  and 
gained  eager  credence  among  London  merchants 
and  capitalists.  The  advantages  of  procuring 
India  goods  by  direct  route  in  their  own  ships,  in- 


The  East  India   Company.  399 

stead  of  through  the  Venetians,  or  by  Turkish 
ports,  were  too  apparent  not  to  find  ready  advo- 
cates. Accordingly,  in  A.  D.  1600,  five  years  before 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  great  Akbar,  a  com- 
pany of  London  merchants  formed  themselves  into 
an  association  for  foreign  trade,  with  a  capital  of 
,£369,891,  or  nearly  $1,850,000,  and  obtained  from 
Queen  Elizabeth,  then  Sovereign  of  Great  Britian, 
a  charter,  under  the  style  of  "  The  Governor  and 
Company  of  Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the 
East  Indies."  This  was  the  basis  of  the  u  British 
East  India  Company  "  that  for  two  centuries  and 
a  half  controlled  almost  the  entire  foreign  trade 
of  Great  Britian,  and  grew  at  length  into  such  a 
mammoth  concern,  such  a  complication  of  enter- 
prises, prerogatives  and  abuses,  as  to  render  its 
dissolution  a  matter  of  necessity. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

INDIAN    RACES. 

PAUSING  in  our  history  to  consider  the  origin, 
character,  and  abodes  of  some  of  the  numer- 
ous races  of  India,  who  seem  generally  to  have 
filled  the  leading  parts  of  the  great  drama,  we  find 
the  Rajputs  stand  out  prominently  as  the  ruling 
race.  Few  nations  have  a  history  so  replete  with 
heroic  deeds  and  unflinching  patriotism  as  the 
Rajputs  of  Meywar.  They  alone  of  all  the  Indian 
races  refused  to  bow  before  Mohammedan  des- 
potism ;  and  despite  the  most  horrible  persecutions, 
they  proudly  maintained  their  independence ; 
which  was  proof  equally  against  the  blandish- 
ments of  imperial  favor,  and  the  furious  onslaught 
of  the  armed  foe. 

Kashatrya  is  a  name  that  belonged  originally  to 
400 


CAB   OF   JUGGERNATH. 


H.  I— 26 


The  Rajputs.  403 

the  Aryan  race  of  warriors,  who,  in  company  with 
the  Brahmins  or  priests,  established  themselves  on 
the  lofty  table-lands  of  Hindustan  some  two 
thousand  years  before  our  era.  This  title  of 
Kashatrya  is  now  claimed  by  the  Rajputs,  together 
with  a  descent  from  the  god  Rama,  the  conqueror 
of  Lanka,  who  was  the  king  of  the  "  Race  of  the 
Sun,"  at  the  date  of  the  first  colonization  of  India 
by  the  Aryans.  It  is  now  believed  that  the  inva- 
sion of  India  occurred  at  a  somewhat  later  period 
than  that  claimed  by  its  own  records  ;  but 
whether  the  ancient  Kashatryas  are  the  veritable 
ancestors  of  the  modern  Rajputs,  it  is  impossible 
now  to  determine.  In  opposition  to  the  Rajput 
theory,  the  Brahmins  contend  that  several  centu- 
ries before  our  era  the  Kashatryas  were  all 
destroyed  in  a  general  up-rising  of  the  other  castes, 
by  a  decree  of  Parasourama,  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu.  Yet  another  theory,  advanced  by  several 
historians,  is,  that  these  redoubtable  Rajputs,  \vho 
have  generally  managed  to  gain  the  day  in  their 
constantly-recurring  disputes,  are  none  other  than 
the  descendants  of  the  Scythian  tribes  who,  com- 
ing over  in  small  parties,  at  different  periods, 
gained  a  footing  and  formed  colonies  along  the 


404  Indian  Races. 

western  frontier  of  India.     In  favor  of  this  last 
theory,  it  is  alleged  that  both  in  physique   and 
many  of  their  national  customs,  as  also  in   their 
fairer   complexion,   the    Rajputs   more  nearly   re- 
semble the  Parthians  and  Scythians  than  they  do 
any  of   the    Hindu   races ;    while    their   religious 
creed  inclines  to  the  Jam  type,   and  their  older 
traditions    make    frequent    reference    to    Mount 
Aboo.     Though  there  are  now  no  well-authorized 
data  upon  which  to  base  any  positive  decision  of 
these  mooted  points,  it  is  certain  that  the  Rajputs 
did  not  make  their  de"but  upon  the  political  stage 
of  India  prior  to  the  sixth  century,  and  that,  if 
not  destroyed,  they  were  at  least  supplanted  by 
the  Mauryas,  and  other  races  of  Soudras,  who  suc- 
cessively occupied  the  imperial  throne  of  Magadha. 
Between  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  however, 
the  Rajputs,  who  had  remained  for  a  long  time 
quietly  settled  on   the  banks  of  the  Indus,  began 
to  cast  adrift  and  to  make  their  power  felt  in  the 
struggle  for  position.     The  Chohans  and  Rahtores 
took  possession  of  Canouj  and  Delhi ;  the   Ohan- 
delas,  of  Malwar  ;  arid  the  Ghelotes  and  Baghelas, 
of  Mey  war  and  Guzerat ;  and  it  was  at  about  this 


Oudeypore.  405 

period  that   the    Rajputs  first  began   publicly  to 
claim  the  title  of  Kashatrya. 

Oudeypore,  the  capital  of  Meywar,  has  an 
elevated  position  on  the  water-shed  between  the 
Bombay  and  Bengal  Presidencies.  Its  surround- 
ings of  lofty  hills,  and  its  outlook  upon  a  lovely 
lake  with  island  palaces,  water  gardens  and  tem- 
ples, secure  for  it  the  reputation  of  being  the 
fairest  sight  in  Rajputana.  The  city  has  a  salubri- 
ous climate,  with  a  population  of  about  thirty- 
eight  thousand  inhabitants,  who,  in  common  with 
all  the  people  of  this  native  state  of  Meywar,  are 
noted  for  their  manliness  and  independence  of 
character.  Mons.  Rousselet,  writing  of  his  late 
visit,  says  :  "  At  length  we  passed  around  the  last 
hill,  and  Oudeypore,  the  capital  of  Meywar,  lay 
before  us.  My  men  shouted  and  danced  for  joy. 
As  for  myself,  I  stood  in  ecstasy,  gazing  at  the 
sublime  panorama  spread  out  at  my  feet.  Never 
had  I  even  hoped  to  see  anything  so  beautiful.  It 
resembled  one  of  the  fairy  cities  of  the  '  Arabian 
Nights.'  In  the  foreground,  a  long  line  of  forts, 
pagodas,  and  palaces  stood  out  from  a  background 
of  gardens,  above  which  appeared  the  town,  a 
fantastic  assemblage  of  bell-turrets,  towers,  and 


406  Indian  Races. 

kiosks  built  up  the  side  of  a  pyramidal  hill,  on  the 
summit  of  which  was  an  immense  palace  of  white 
marble,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  dark  blue  tints 
of  the  mountains  behind  it.  This  palace,  with  its 
perfect  proportions  and  great  magnitude  seems  to 
soar,  like  a  New  Jerusalem,  above  a  terrestrial  cit}r." 
Neither  pen  nor  pencil  can  portray  the  marvellous 
splendor  of  this  superb  town,  so  justl}r  named 
Oudeypore,  "City  of  the  Rising  Sun."*  At- 
tractive as  is  the  prospect,  desolate  ravines,  that 
guard  the  entrance,  must  first  be  crossed  ere  this 
terrestrial  paradise  can  be  entered.  But  when 
these  have  been  left  behind  the  visitor  is  richly  re- 
paid by  the  enchanting  vision  of  temples,  palaces, 
arches,  columns,  and  a  thousand  objects  of  interest 
that  every  where  challenge  his  admiration,  not  alone 
for  their  intrinsic  beautj^,  but  as  the  surroundings 
of  a  most  remarkable  race  of  truly  regal  princes. 
The  late  Maharana  Sambhoo  Singh,  who  died 
when  scarcely  in  his  prime,  was  among  his  country- 
men a  personage  of  note  —  a  Rajput  Ghelote,  of 
the  clan  Sesoudias,  the  recognized  representative 
of  the  Souriavanses,  the  famous  Indian  "  Race  of 
the  Sun."  This  was  the  noble  prince  who  was  in 

*  India  and  its  Native  Princes,  page  145. 


The  Rajah  of  Rajputana.  409 

power  at  the  time  of  M.  Rousselet's  visit.  The 
present  Rajah  Maharana,  who  received  the  Prince 
of  Wales  so  handsomely,  is  a  cousin  of  the  last, 
and  his  adopted  heir.  He  is  described  by  Russell, 
as  "  tall,  good-looking,  and  very  fair  —  of  fairer 
hue  than  the  average  Europeans  of  the  South,  of 
very  dignified  manners  and  carriage,  with  an  air  as 
if  he  were  conscious  of  his  origin,  and  meant  to 
keep  up  the  traditions  of  his  house."  Tod  says 
of  this  family,  that  they  are  the -representatives  of 
the  only  dynasty  which,  with  the  exception  of 
Jaisalmir,  "outlived  eight  centuries  of  foreign 
domination  in  the  same  land  where  conquest 
placed  them  ;  and  who  now  hold  the  territory 
their  ancestors  held  when  the  conqueror  from 
Ghazni  first  crossed  the  blue  waters  of  the  Indus 
to  invade  India." 

Such  is  the  estimation  in  which  this  very  aristo- 
cratic sovereign  is  held  by  the  other  races  of  his 
own  country  that  marriage  with  a  daughter  of 
his  house  can  be  had  only  at  the  cost  of  a  prov- 
ince. Sir  Thomas  Roe  gravely  asserts,  that  this 
most  royal  house  is  descended  from  Porus ;  they 
themselves,  that  they  come  of  celestial  origin  ;  and 
everybody  who  looks  into  the  pedigree  of  this 


410  Indian  Races. 

Maharana  of  Oudeypore  concurs  in  the  opinion 
that  it  is  the  very  oldest  in  the  world,  as  he  cer- 
tainly belongs  to  the  highest  race  in  India.  His 
every  motion  is  that  of  a  king  to  the  sceptre  born ; 
and  though  in  the  first  years  of  young  manhood, 
he  displays  great  energy  and  force  of  character. 
His  usual  dress  is  pure  white  —  turban,  robe,  and 
pantaloons ;  sometimes  embroidered  silk  or  satin, 
and  at  others,  the  finest  linen  or  India  muslin  ;  but 
there  is  always  the  golden  belt  set  with  magnifi- 
cent diamonds,  the  aigrette  of  other  diamonds  still 
more  superb  and  costly  on  his  head-dress,  and 
upon  neck  and  arms  strings  of  huge  pearls,  rubies 
and  other  precious  stones  of  priceless  value.  The 
Sirdars  of  his  suite  wear  green  satin  and  brocade, 
with  white  silk  turbans,  and  jewels  as  handsome,  if 
not  altogether  so  costly  as  those  of  their  chief.  The 
state  contains  eleven  thousand  six  hundred  and  four- 
teen square  miles,  with  a  population  of  one  million 
one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  thousand  inhabitants  ; 
and  a  revenue  of  $2,000,000,  of  which  $100,000  is 
paid  in  taxes  to  the  British  Government". 

Besides   the   illustrious    descent   of    this   royal 
house,  their  importance   arises  from  yet  another 


The  Head  of  Indian  Nobility.  411 

source.  For  this  family  not  only  opposed  the 
Mussulman  invasion,  but  they  preserved  their 
purity  of  caste  at  the  cost  of  blood  and  treasure, 
by  sundering,  during  all  the  Mohammedan  rule, 
every  form  of  connection  with  the  imperial  family, 
which  many  other  Indian  princes  eagerly  accepted. 
This  has  placed  the  Maharana  of  Oudeypore  at 
the  very  head  of  the  Indian  nobility,  and  given 
him  many  additional  honors  and  prerogatives.  In 
assemblies  of  the  Rajput  princes,  he  always  occu- 
pies the  seat  of  honor,  and  takes  precedence  in 
speaking.  He  is  also  the  arbiter  of  disputes  on 
all  national  points,  and  from  his  decision  there  is 
no  appeal.  Among  the  genealogical  claims  of  the 
lianas,  are  two  which,  if  well-founded,  may  justify 
the  name  they-have  assumed,  its  signification  being 
"  Sons  of  Kings."  They  claim  connection  with 
the  kings  of  Persia,  through  a  daughter  of  the  last 
Chosroes,  the  great  Noushirvau,  who  married  one 
of  the  Ranas ;  and  with  the  Roman  emperors  of 
Constantinople  in  the  same  way,  through  the  mar- 
riage of  an  imperial  maiden  with  another  of  the 
Maharanas  of  Oudeypore.  These  claims  are  said 
to  be  well  authenticated ;  and  further,  there  is 
probably  "  not  another  family  in  the  world  that 


412  Indian  Races. 

possesses  a  pedigree  so  correctly  traced  from  fabu- 
lous times  as  that  of  the  Ranas  of  Chittore  and 
Oudeypore."  Here  also  are  found  the  most  per- 
fect physical  types  of  the  noble  Rajput  race,  and 
the  many  loyal  and  chivalrous  traits  ascribed  to 
them  by  Tod,  their  appreciative  historian. 

Amid  the  present  degree  of  civilization,  and  the 
splendid  receptions  now  given  by  native  Princes 
all  over  India  to  stranger  visitors  from  every  land, 
one  finds  it  difficult  even  to  conceive  of  the  obsta- 
cles and  dangers  that  beset  the  path  of  Bishop 
Heber,  the  priest  and  poet-traveller  of  1820,  when 
he  attempted  a  tour  of  the  Rajput  states.  He 
says  :  "  The  journe}'  was  hardly  less  to  be  dreaded 
than  one  into  the  centre  of  Africa  —  the  whole 
interior  of  India  being  overrun  by  bands  of  brig- 
ands, and  these  scarcely  more  dangerous  to  for- 
eigners than  the  inhabitants  of  villages  and  rural 
districts."  How  different  in  our  own  day,  when, 
despite  all  the  wrongs  and  oppressions  of  which 
the  people  of  Hindustan  have  been  the  recipients 
at  the  hands  of  European  races,  strangers  meet 
everywhere  only  courtesy  and  kindness  from  her 
people  of  every  grade.  It  is  at  Oudeypore,  above 
every  other  city  in  India,  that  are  to  be  found  the 


"  Sons  of  Kings:'  413 

high  representatives  of  the  chief  Rajput  tribes, 
and  of  purest  blood,  till  it  has  passed  into  a 
proverb  that  "a  courtier  of  the  court  of  Oudey- 
pore  is  the  model  of  bon-ton  for  all  India." 

Neither  Mogul  nor  English  have  in  any  way 
been  able  to  influence  these  princely  Rajputs  to 
amalgamate  with  other  races :  and  despite  inva- 
sion and  contact  with  foreigners  they  have  pre- 
served intact  their  purity  of  blood  and  caste. 
And  what  grand,  noble  specimens  of  manhood 
they  are  —  these  calm,  silent,  dignified  "  Sons  of 
Kings,"  every  one  of  them,  with  their  tall,  well- 
developed  forms,  expressive  features,  and  princely 
air.  They  wear  the  beard  very  long,  divided  into 
two  pointed  whiskers,  which  is  the  ne  plus  ultra  of 
the  barber's  art  in  Oudeypore.  The  turbans  of 
the  Rajputs  are  always  of  fine  material,  and  always 
tastefully  folded,  though  not  by  any  means  of  cor- 
responding size  or  form.  Very  many  are  small 
and  tightly-fitting,  with  the  edges  turned  up  like  a 
cap  ;  others  are  more  voluminous  ;  and  some  quite 
fantastic  as  to  form.  Their  usual  attire  consists 
of  a  tight-fitting  tunic,  full  trousers,  or  a  waist- 
cloth  worn  long  and  so  arranged  as  to  resemble 
the  aforesaid  garment,  and  a  jewelled  girdle  decked 


414  Indian  Races. 

out  with  a  complete  armament  of  swords,  daggers, 
and  dirks ;  with  the  addition  in  times  of  active 
service,  of  the  traditional  rhinoceros-skin  shield, 
circular,  semi-transparent,  and  pendant  from  the 
shoulders  by  a  cord  of  the  same  material,  the 
shield  itself  fairly  aglow  with  a  super-abundance 
of  golden  knobs.  The  women  are  tall  and  well- 
formed,  sprightly,  graceful,  and  sometimes  very 
pretty.  Only  the  very  highest  claims  are  kept  in 
seclusion,  the  remainder  going  about  ad  libitum; 
and  vails  are  never  worn.  Nevertheless,  a  pretty, 
graceful  coyness  is  one  of  the  attractions  of  the 
Rajput  fair,  leading  her,  when  too  closely  observed, 
to  draw  the  long,  silken  sarri,  pendant  always 
from  her  head,  over  her  features,  until  the  inquisi- 
tive gazer  has  passed.  The  costume  of  Rajput 
ladies  is  pretty  and  graceful,  consisting  of  a  long, 
full-plaited  skirt,  descending  below  the  knee,  a 
tight  bodice  of  some  bright  color,  and  the  long 
sarri  or  scarf  of  thin  silk,  fastened  in  a  tasteful 
knot  upon  the  top  of  the  head,  and  suffered  to 
float  at  will  over  the  neck  and  shoulders.  An 
abundance  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  as  in 
every  oriental  costume,  completes  the  attire. 

Among  Rajput  families  of  distinction,  the  house- 


The  Household   Bard.  417 

hold  bard  holds  an  important  place.  Not  only  the 
sovereign,  courtiers,  and  chiefs,  have  each  an 
especial  bard  and  poet,  but  even  private  families 
of  wealth  and  position  have  their  own,  each  keep- 
ing the  pedigree  of  his  master's  house,  preserving 
intact  the  traditions  that  belong  to' the  family,  and, 
on  grand  occasions,  reciting  the  ancestral  catalogue 
with  the  deeds  that  have  rendered  each  name  illus- 
trious. The  very  person  of  the  bard  is  held 
sacred ;  and  no  undue  familiarity,  still  less  neglect 
or  injury,  is  ever  permitted  toward  him ;  and 
among  the  desert  tribes  he  is  far  more  venerated 
than  even  the  Brahmin  priests.  He  deals  largely 
in  astrology  also,  professing  to  draw  all  his  deduc- 
tions, public  and  private,  from  the  stars ;  and  from 
their  omens  and  decrees  as  promulgated  by  him, 
there  is  never  a  doubt,  or  thought  of  appeal.  He 
is  the  bearer  of  all  important  messages  in  the 
arranging  of  treaties  and  negotiations  of  every 
sort,  and  when  he  dies,  the  whole  clan  mourn  his 
departure  as  a  national  calamity,  second  only  to 
that  of  their  chief. 

When,  in  1565,  Pertab   Singh  was  deposed  by 
the  Mogul  emperor,  Akbar,  and  after  a  gallant  re- 
sistance was  driven  with  his  brave   Rajputs  from 
H.  I —27 


418  Indian  Races. 

the  domain  of  his  ancestors,  there  remained  to  him 
only  the  territory  comprised  within  the  semi-circle 
of  the  Gurvva  Mountains.  But  his  brave  spirit 
was  unconquered,  and  tradition  sa}rs,  that  halting 
before  Chittore,  the  ancient  city  of  the  Ranas,  he 
vowed  a  terrible  vengeance  against  the  invaders 
of  his  native  soil ;  and  that  thenceforward,  refus- 
ing all  the  honors  offered  by  the  Mogul  emperor, 
as  the  price  of  submission  to  his  authority,  Pertab, 
to  the  very  end  of  his  life,  waged  implacable  and 
uncompromising  war  against  the  whole  Mogul 
race.  His  brave  defence  of  the  Dhobarri  Pass  is 
well  known.  With  a  handful  of  nobles  who  had 
remained  faithful  to  him,  and  the  help  of  the  fierce 
Bheels  he  had  enlisted  as  soldiers,  he  sustained  the 
shock  of  the  imperial  forces;  and  subsequently, 
by  dint  of  an  unfaltering  heroism,  he  recovered  by 
degrees,  the  whole  of  Meywar,  (which  in  spite  of 
all  odds,  the  Rajputs  have  retained),  and  at  last, 
the  powerful  Jehanghir  was  able  to  conclude  a 
treaty  with  them,  only  on  their  own  terms.  Tod, 
in  his  "  Annals  of  Rajesthan,"  styles  the  powerful 
Jehanghir,  "the  Mogul  emperor,  a  commentator, 
like  Caesar,  on  the  history  of  the  Sesoudias ; "  and 
quotes  the  language  of  Jehanghir,  "  the  Supreme 


The  iSesoudias.  419 

Head  of  the  twenty-two  Satrapies  of  India,"  as 
exulting  with  pride  on  the  treaty  concluded  with 
the  Rajput  king,  "  he  thanks  Heaven  for  having 
reserved  to  him  the  success  which  neither  his  im- 
mortal ancestor,  Baber,  the  founder  of  the  Mogul 
dynasty,  nor  Humayun  had  been  able  to  attain  ; 
and  which  even  his  father,  the  illustrious  Akbar, 
had  but  partially  achieved." 

The  sixteen  Omras  who  surround  the  Rana  at 
his  Durbars  are  the  representatives  of  the  little 
band  of  heroes  who,  for  an  entire  century,  val- 
iantly maintained  the  independence  of  their  flag, 
without  once  yielding  the  day,  turning  their  backs 
on  the  foe,  or  being  seduced  by  the  brilliant  offers 
of  the  emperors.  It  is  said  that  the  poorest  Raj- 
put Sesoudia  of  the  present  day  can  trace  back 
the  genealogy  of  his  tribe  for  a  dozen  centuries  at 
least,  and  may  dwell  with  pride  on  the  purity  of 
his  lineage,  unstained  by  any  alliance  with  the 
Tartars.  Before  even  the  beginning  of  our  era 
this  "race  of  the  suri "  appear  to  have  owned  an 
immense  territory,  and  to  have  reigned  over 
wealthy  cities,  and  luxuriated  in  gorgeous  palaces 
and  superb  monuments  while  many  European 
nations  were  yet  in  their  infancy,  and  the  very 


420  Indian  Races. 

existence  of  our  Western  Continent  had  never  been 
thought  of,  by  even  the  wisest  heads. 

Every  Rajput  noble  has  his  own  standard  and 
coat  of  arms,  and  many  have  names  corresponding 
with  the  devices  emblazoned  on  their  banners. 
These  possess  the  genuine  stamp  of  antiquity, 
showing  that  their  heraldry  could  not  have  been 
imported  from  Europe  as  some  writers  have  sup- 
posed. In  the  Mahabarata,  and  many  others  of 
their  sacred  books,  the  heroes  are  represented  as 
carrying  off  the  banners  of  their  foes ;  while  in 
Hindu  romances,  the  knights  are  nearly  always 
distinguished  by  the  devices  on  their  shields. 

The  Maharajah  Ram  Singh,  of  Jeypore,  is  the 
chief  of  the  Kachwas  (Tortoises),  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal Rajput  clans.  They,  too,  trace  their  descent 
from  the  divine  Rama  of  Aoudha,  the  ancestor  of  the 
Souriavanses,  through  his  second  son,  Gush,  one  of 
whose  descendants  built  the  celebrated  fortress  of 
Rhotas  in  Behar,  and  took  the  name  of  Kachwa.  In 
A.  D.  295,  Nal  Pal,  one  of  their  kings,  removed  west- 
ward to  Nishida,  now  Narwar,  and  their  third  capi- 
tal was  Gwalior.  In  967  Dhola  Rae  was  driven 
from  the  country  by  a  usurper,  and  forced  to  seek 
refuge  among  the  Mynas  of  Dhoundhar,  by  whom 


RUINS   NKAR   DELHI. 


The   Kachwas.  423 

he  was  very  kindly  received  ;  and  whom,  by  a  long 
course  of  treachery,  he  dispossessed  of  their  coun- 
try. At  the  time  of  the  Mussulman  invasion  the 
Kachwa  kings  of  Ambir  were  among  the  first  to 
seek  their  alliance  ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Akbar, 
Bhagwandas  gave  one  of  his  daughters  in  mar- 
riage to  Prince  Selim,  afterwards  the  Emperor 
Jehanghir.  The  name  of  this  Rajah  is  conse- 
quently held  in  reproach,  for  having  been  the  first 
to  stain  the  pure,  unmixed  blood  of  a  Rajput  by  a 
union  with  the  abhorred  Moslems  ;  and  for  this 
act,  the  clan  of  Kachwas  are  to  this  day  regarded 
as  inferior  to  all  other  Rajputs. 

The  Mynas,  the  ancient  owners  of  Jeypore, 
were  one  of  the  great  aboriginal  races  of  India, 
who,  like  the  Bheels,  the  Gounds,  and  Jats,  peo- 
pled the  broad  lands  since  occupied  by  the  Rajputs. 
The  Mynas  of  Dhoundhar  were  divided  into  five 
great  tribes,  called  Panchwara,  and  inhabited  the 
whole  region  of  the  Kalikho  Mountains  from 
Ajmere  to  Delhi.  Their  chief  towns  were  Ambir, 
Khogaum,  and  Mauch.  This  race  was  not  entirely 
subjugated  until  about  the  thirteenth  century  ; 
and  they  had  attained  an  advanced  degree  of  civil- 
ization, but  driven  back  to  the  mountains,  they 


424  Indian  Races. 

have  gradually  relapsed  almost  into  barbarism, 
and  their  wild  tribes  now  spread  themselves  nearly 
to  the  mountains  of  Central  India.  All  the 
aboriginal  races  of  Rajputana,  the  Mynas,  as  well 
as  the  Bheels,  and  Mhairs,  live  in  villages  called 
Pals,  which  circumstance  has  given  them  the 
generic  name  of  Palitas.  The  habits  of  the 
Mynas  resemble  those  of  the  Bheels.  They  live 
by  hunting  and  brigandage  rather  than  agriculture ; 
and  they  always  carry  their  bows  and  lattis  (bam- 
boos, pointed  with  iron).  They  have  dark,  swarthy 
skins,  long,  silk}'  black  hair,  and  their  features  are 
more  refined  and  intelligent  than  those  of  the  Bheels. 
Bheel  is  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  bhila,  "  sep- 
arate," i.  e.,  outcast,  a  name  applied  to  one  of  the 
aboriginal  races  alluded  to  above,  who  have  from 
remote  ages  been  described  as  a  distinct  people. 
According  to  their  own  traditions,  they  sprang 
from  the  union  of  the  god  Mahadeo  with  a  beauti- 
ful woman  he  met  in  a  forest,  and  whose  descend- 
ants becoming  numerous  settled  the  country  of 
West  Candeish,  Malwar,  Rajputana,  the  Aravalis, 
Vindhyas,  and  Salpura  Mountains.  They  still 
people  the  whole  of  Bagur,  a  part  of  the  chain  of 
the  Aravalis,  and  nearly  all  the  Viiidhyas. 


The  Bheels.  425 

Along  the  Vindhya  range,  from  Jain  to  West 
Mandu,  almost  the  entire  population  are  Bheels, 
though  many  of  the  chiefs  are  descended  from 
Rajput  fathers  and  Bheel  mothers,  and  are  known 
as  Chomijahs.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  these 
was  Nadir  Singh,  famous  for  his  murderous  ex- 
ploits. They  woi-ship  Mahadeo  and  his  consort, 
Devi,  the  goddess  of  small-pox.  For  other  objects 
of  worship  they  select  the  several  elements,  and 
special  maladies  ;  and  for  the  gigantic  tree  Mhowa, 
from  which  they  obtain  both  oil  and  spirits,  they 
have  a  supreme  reverence.  They  rarely  erect 
regular  temples,  but  heap  up  a  mass  of  stones  and 
smear  them  with  red  ochre,  then  lay  on  a  rudely- 
sculptured  flagstone  upon  which  to  deposit  offer- 
ings, and  their  sanctuary  is  complete.  Equally 
simple  is  their  toilette.  A  single  twist  of  their 
long  hair  is  wound  around  the  temples  to  serve  as 
a  turban,  while  the  remainder  hangs  neglected 
about  the  shoulders  that  are  bare  and  bronzed.  A 
single  waist-cloth  forms  usually  the  entire  costume 
for  men,  while  the  women  have  also  their  shoulders 
partially  covered,  and  a  succession  of  bangles  and 
bracelets  reaching,  the  former  from  knee  to  ankle, 
and  the  latter  from  wrist  to  elbow.  Denounced 


426  Indian  Races. 

for  centuries  as  thieves  and  outlaws,  the  Bheels, 
in  bitter  sarcasm,  style  themselves  "  the  thieves  of 
Mahadeo,"  and  declare  perpetual  enmity  against 
the  Hindus,  who  have  banished  them  from  their 
legal  rights.  Withdrawing  into  inaccessible  dis- 
tricts, and  sheltered  in  their  fastnesses  from  the 
strong  arm  of  the  law,  they  live  apart  from  the 
residue  of  mankind,  pay  tribute  to  none,  make 
terrible  reprisals  on  those  who  injure  or  offend 
them,  and  scatter  terror  among  merchants  and 
travellers  who  pass  their  way.  Their^  "  pals  "  or 
villages  are  always  built  on  heights  command- 
ing the  roads ;  each  house  is  a  fortress  of  itself, 
looking,  as  it  stands  perched  on  the  very  summit 
of  some  abrupt  cliff,  like  a  gigantic  aerie,  and 
every  chief  of  a  clan  is  the  commander  of  a  troop 
of  brigands.  When  danger  threatens,  the  clans 
make  common  cause  —  the  women,  children  and 
cattle  are  sent  to  the  ravines  for  safety,  while  the 
men  either  sally  forth  to  meet  their  foes,  or  launch 
their  arrows  at  them  from  an  intrenchment  of 
cactus  and  boxwood.  Sentinels  are  always  on  the 
lookout  for  danger,  and  for  "  game  ; "  and  not  a 
movement  along  the  road  escapes  their  observa- 
tion. 


A   Legend.  427 

Treated  like  wild  beasts,  hunted  down,  de- 
nounced and  defamed  by  the  Brahmins,  whom 
they  abhor  and  denounce  in  return,  they  seem  in  a 
great  measure  to  have  forgotten  their  ancient 
civilization,  and  have  fallen  into  the  state  of 
degradation,  in  which  they  are  found  at  the  present 
day.  In  their  legends  and  traditions,  however, 
they  have  preserved  many  memorials  of  their  days 
of  renown,  when  their  rule  extended  over  fertile 
plains  as  well  as  rugged  mountains.  One  of  these 
legends  seems  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  hatred 
existing  between  the  Bheels  and  Brahmins.  The 
legend  says :  "  A  Brahmin  one  day  chanced  to 
meet  in  the  jungle  a  natural  son  of  Mahadeo, 
wandering  about  in  search  of  food.  As  he  was 
very  black,  and  of  giant  strength,  the  Brahmin 
sneeringly  called  him,  '  NichadiJ  or  Bheel,  i.  e., 
'  outlaw,'  and  charged  him  with  the  murder  of 
Nandi,  the  sacred  ox  of  the  god.  This  scion  of 
divinity,  indignant  at  the  wanton  insult,  slew  the 
offending  Brahmin  on  the  spot,  and  returning 
home  boasted  of  the  exploit  to  his  people,  who 
adopted  thenceforward  the  name  of  'Bheel'  in 
commemoration  of  his  deed."  The  Brahmins 
choose  to  aver  that  the  ox  was  verily  slain,  and 


428  Indian  Races. 

the  crime  of  all  most  odious  in  the  eyes  of  a 
Hindu  really  committed  by  the  son  of  the  very 
god  the  Bheels  worship ;  while  the  proud  Bheel 
scorns  to  disavow  the  base  slander,  but  declines 
nevertheless  to  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  impe- 
rious Brahmin ;  and  so  the  two  are  at  perpetual 
variance.  Despite  their  outlawry,  the  Bheels  have 
noble  traits.  They  are  said  to  be  very  humane  to 
their  prisoners  taken  from  other  races,  showing 
them  the  hospitality  due  to  strangers  and  guests. 
They  are  likewise  excellent  husbands  ;  and  wives 
exercise  considerable  influence  in  the  domestic 
menage.  The  Bheels  are  noted  also  for  their 
grateful  remembrance  of  favors  received ;  and  for 
the  faithful  observance  of  promises.  The  point  of 
honor  is  carried  so  far  that  they  have  been  known 
repeatedly  to  allow  richly-freighted  caravans  to 
pass  unmolested,  solely  because  a  safe  conduct  had 
been  innocently  promised  by  some  of  their  own 
little  children  ;  or  their  protection  invoked  by  the 
travellers  themselves.  They  have  no  prejudices  of 
caste,  nor  any  in  regard  to  food,  for  their  several 
tribes  intermarry  with  each  other,  and  frequently 
also  with  the  Rajputs  ;  and  they  eat  any  food  they 


The   Bheels.  429 

find  agreeable  or  convenient,  irrespective  of  its 
source. 

The  pure  Bheels  are  said  to  number  about  two 
millions  in  India,  besides  many  thousands  of 
Bhilalas,  a  mixed  race,  the  progeny  of  Rajputs 
and  Bheels  who  have  intermarried.  The  Bheels 
are  of  medium  height,  and  more  robust  than  the 
average  Hindu,  though  less  graceful  in  carriage. 
They  are  remarkably  strong,  athletic,  and  skilful 
in  the  use  of  their  bows  and  arrows,  using  them 
even  in  tiger  and  panther  hunting,  and  readily  hit- 
ting their  mark  at  twenty  or  twenty-five  yards 
distance.  The  Bheel  women,  as  a  rule,  are  of  a 
handsome  type,  fairer  than  the  men,  more  elegantly 
formed,  and  extremely  dignified  and  stately. 

The  Bheels  joined  in  the  Indian  mutiny  of  1857 
and  1858  ;  and  Lieutenant  Henry,  Superintendent 
of  Police,  was  killed  in  endeavoring  to  dislodge 
them  from  a  strong  position  in  Candeish.  In 
another  engagement,  fought  January  20,  1858, 
near  the  frontier  of  the  Nizam's  territory,  where 
the  Bheels  were  strongly  entrenched,  the  English 
lost  fifty  European  soldiers  and  officers.  At  other 
points,  however,  when  friendship  and  protection 
had  been  shown  them  by  the  English,  they  evinced 


430  Indian  Races. 

their  appreciation  of  these  favors  by  protecting  their 
allies  when  menaced  by  mutinous  seapoys ;  and 
some  of  the  Bheels  who  entered  the  British  army 
rendered  faithful  and  effective  service.  The 
British  Government  has,  in  return,  endeavored 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  Rajput  raids  that  formerly 
proved  so  destructive  to  the  crops  and  villages  of 
the  Bheels.  The  attacks  of  the  Rajputs  were  nearly 
always  made  when  the  mountaineers  were  away  on 
some  distant  expedition,  from  which  they  would  re- 
turn to  find  only  a  smouldering  heap  of  ruins  in  lieu 
of  their  growing  crops  and  picturesque  '•  pals." 
Both  of  these  turbulent  races,  the  Bheels  and  the 
Rajputs,  though  at  first  somewhat  restive  of  con- 
trol, from  whatever  source,  are  gradually,  under 
the  influence  of  wise  laws  and  the  stringency  of 
military  discipline,  toning  down  from  their  preda- 
tory habits  into  more  peaceful  and  law-abiding 
communities. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  MOGUL  EMPIRE  —  FROM  BABER  TO  AKBAR. 

THE  reign  of  Baber,  the  first  Tartan  Emperor 
who  attempted  to  reside  among  his  Indian 
subjects,  was  by  no  means  a  welcome  one  to  the 
Rajputs  and  chiefs  of  his  new  domain.  Very 
many  of  them  were  in  open  rebellion,  and  boldly 
defied  him  ;  and  nearly  all  had  availed  themselves 
of  the  recent  disturbed  state  of  the  country  to 
act  independently  of  any  ''Paramount  Power," 
and  were  not  disposed  to  resign  to  the  new-made 
emperor  any  of  their  recently  acquired  preroga- 
tives. But  Baber's  early  experiences  had  taught 
him  how  to  conquer  rebellious  princes ;  and  he 
had  reached  the  throne  of  Delhi  through  too  many 
victories  to  have  any  fear  of  future  defeat.  His 
father,  who  had  been  Sultan  of  Khokan,  dying 
431 


432  The  Mogul  Empire. 

when  Baber  was  a  lad  of  twelve,  his  uncle,  the 
Sultan  of  Samercand,  had  seized  the  patrimony  of 
the  youthful  sovereign  ;  but  Baber,  with  a  spirit 
and  bravery  beyond  his  years,  asserted  his  rights, 
and  maintained  them  against  his  far  more  experi- 
enced relative  for  several  years.  Becoming  in- 
volved in  disputes  with  several  of  his  neighbors, 
at  the  same  time,  they  united  against  him,  and 
Baber  was  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 
With  only  three  hundred  followers,  he  took  refuge 
in  Khorasan,  and  was  for  several  years  involved  in 
dissensions  concerning  his  paternal  domain.  After 
enlisting  in  his  service  a  large  company  of  Moguls 
in  addition  to  his  Afghan  troops,  Baber,  in  1519, 
crossed  the  Indus,  and  conquered  several  towns 
in  the  Punjaub  ;  but  no  further  attempt  was  made 
on  India  for  nearly  five  years.  In  1524  he  ad- 
vanced to  Lahore,  which  he  captured ;  but  after- 
wards formed  an  alliance  with  its  Rajah,  for  the 
su-bjugation  of  other  provinces.  His  next  advance 
was  to  Paniput,  the  "  battle-field  of  India,"  fifty 
miles  from  Delhi,  where  he  fought  the  great  battle 
that  gave  him  an  empire,  and  left  Ibrahim  Lodi, 
the  last  of  the  Afghan  monarchs  of  India,  dead  on 
the  battle-field.  Baber's  lieutenants  occupied 


H.  T.-28 


Baber's    Success.  435 

Delhi  and  Agra,  while  his  son,  Humayun,  routed 
another  Afghan  army,  and  Baber  marched  south- 
ward and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Rana 
Sanka,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Hindu  princes. 
From  this  time  Baber  busied  himself  in  quelling 
insurrections,  and  reducing  his  refractory  Rajahs 
and  governors  to  obedience.  The  Afghan  chiefs 
and  Hindu  troops  fought  with  great  valor,  and 
disputed  every  battle  with  the  energy  of  despera- 
tion. Several  times  Baber,  who  was  always  in 
the  thickest  of  the  fight,  came  near  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  but  his  usual  good  fort- 
une never  forsook  him  ;  and  it  was  without  even  a 
wound  that,  at  the  end  of  four  years'  hard  con- 
flicts, Baber  set  himself  to  the  reconstruction  of 
his  extensive  dominions,  with  nearly  every  province 
once  more  under  the  dominion  of  Delhi.  He  had 
roads  built  and  repaired,  with  way-stations  for  the 
accommodation  of  travellers  ;  caused  a  new  survey 
of  lands,  with  reference  to  equable  taxation, 
planted  gardens  and  fruit  trees,  and  established  a 
line  of  post-houses  from  Agra  to  Cabul.  All  these 
improvements,  in  addition  to  the  founding  of  an 
empire  that  lasted  nearly  three  centuries,  was  the 
work  of  that  brief  reign  of  only  five  years,  four 


436  The  Mogul  Empire. 

of  which  were  spent  in  warfare.  But  now  that 
all  his  projects  seemed  fulfilled,  and  all  the  plans 
he  had  formed  brought  to  a  happy  conclusion, 
Baber  saw  that  he  was  not  to  live  to  enjoy  his  suc- 
cesses. A  life  of  many  vicissitudes,  with  great 
physical  fatigues  and  the  hardships  of  camp  life, 
had  made  inroads  upon  his  constitution  not  to  be 
shaken  off;  and  conscious  that  his  end  was  ap- 
proaching, he  made  judicious  arrangements  for  the 
future  government  of  the  country,  which  he  be- 
queathed to  his  son  Humayun,  and  expired  in 
December,  1530,  in  the  forty-eighth  year  of  his 
age,  having  reigned  over  India  years  five  only. 
To  great  political  and  military  abilities,  Baber 
joined  literary  tastes  and  accomplishments  of  no 
mean  order.  He  wrote  a  history  of  his  own  life 
in  the  Mogul  language,  which  has  been  translated 
into  English ;  and  so  far  as  his  busy  life  of  warfare 
permitted,  he  encouraged  men  of  letters  about  his 
court.  Humayun  inherited  his  father's  talents 
and  virtues ;  and  few  monarchs  have  ascended  a 
throne  with  more  brilliant  prospects  of  success. 
The  empire  seemed  firmly  established ;  the  turbu- 
lent nobles  were  once  more  at  peace  with  each 
other  and  the  supreme  government ;  the  revenues 


THE   BAZAAR   OF   KHOJA    8YUD,   AJMERE. 


Humayun.  439 

were  in  a  flourishing  condition ;  and  the  young 
king  himself  had  so  well  profited  by  his  father's 
training  and  example,  both  as  general  and  states- 
man, that  he  seemed  admirably  adapted  to  fill  with 
credit  to  himself,  and  to  the  happiness  of  his  peo- 
ple, the  exalted  position  to  which  he  was  called. 
But  his  mild,  peace  loving  character  was  not  suffi- 
ciently in  unison  with  the  warlike  age ;  and  his 
literary  and  social  tastes  were  too  far  in  advance 
of  his  restless,  turbulent  nobles,  who  could  adapt 
themselves  only  to  an  iron  rule.  It  shortly  be- 
came necessary  for  him  to  undertake  an  expedition 
into  Guzerat,  and  another  into  his  Afghan  terri- 
tories ;  and  though  in  both  he  was  victorious,  he 
came  near  falling  a  victim  to  treachery.  Then  his 
two  brothers  revolted,  and  making  common  cause 
with  several  restless  chiefs,  they  incited  a  formid- 
able rebellion  against  him.  After  several  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  restore  order,  Humayun  took  refuge 
at  the  court  of  Persia,  where  he  was  cordially  wel- 
comed, and  assistance  promised  him  against  his 
enemies.  Sixteen  years  however  elapsed  before 
Jie  re-entered  Delhi  in  triumph ;  and  then  he  lived 
only  a  brief  period  to  enjoy  the  restoration  of  his 
kingdom.  Walking  on  a  terrace  of  his  palace,  his 


440  The  Mogul  Empire. 

foot  slipped  and  he  fell  to  the  ground,  so  severely 
injured  that  his  death  followed  in  a  few  days. 
Akbar,  his  son  and  successor,  was  then  only  thir- 
teen years  of  age,  and  as  usual  among  those  turbu- 
lent chieftains  on  the  death  of  a  sovereign, 
insurrections  and  revolts  broke  out  in  various 
parts  of  the  empire.  The  good  order  restored  by 
Baber  had  failed  utterly  under  the"  less  successful 
administration  of  Humayun  ;  and  especially  dur- 
ing his  long  absence  from  the  country,  many  states 
threw  off  their  allegiance  entirely,  and  now  re- 
fused to  submit  to  the  sway  of  the  boy-king, 
whom  they  deemed  wholly  unequal  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  his  claims.  But  the  youth  and  inexperi- 
ence of  Akbar  found  adequate  compensation  in 
the  ripe  years  and  mature  wisdom  of  his  dis- 
tinguished vizier,  Behram  Khan,  the  general  and 
prime  minister  of  his  late  father ;  while  the  bud- 
ding genius  of  Akbar  himself,  that  rendered  him 
afterwards  so  illustrious,  soon  began  to  be  recog- 
nized. 

The  ceremonial  of  coronation  was  scarcely  over 
when  Behram,  accompanied  by  the  youthful  sover- 
eign, set  forth  with  the  utmost  energy  and  deter- 
mination to  bring  the  refractory  Rajahs  to  their 


Akbar.  441 

duty.  Herau  a  powerful  Hindu  prince,  who  had 
assumed  the  title  of  emperor  on.  the  demise  of 
Humayun,  was  the  first  to  be  reckoned  with. 
Hemu,  with  a  powerful  army  of  the  bitterest  foes 
of  Mohammedan  rule,  was  strongly  entrenched  at 
Paniput,  and  they  fought  with  the  desperate  en- 
ergy of  religious  fanaticism  ;  but  victory  declared 
in  favor  of  Akbar  ;  and  Hemu,  wounded  and  a 
prisoner,  was  brought  to  the  royal  tent,  where 
Behram  requested  the  emperor  to  strike  the  first 
blow  at  the  usurper  as  a  signal  for  his  death. 
But  the  brave  young  monarch  refused  to  strike  a, 
wounded  man  and  a  prisoner,  and  this  so  enraged 
the  vizier,  that  he  struck  off  the  head  of  the  cap- 
tive with  his  own  hand  without  waiting  for  the 
formality  of  a  regular  execution.  This  victory 
was  followed  by  others  in  rapid  succession,  till 
Delhi,  Agra,  the  Punjaub,  Guzerat,  and  Bengal 
were  all  brought  back  to  their  fealty.  The  si  rong 
fort,  Chittore,  in  Meywar,  was  also  besieged  and 
taken  after  a  gallant  defence.  Its  rich  jewels  and 
royal  treasures  too,  were  carried  off  by  the  captors ; 
but  Oudey  Singh,  its  brave  defender  and  most 
precious  treasure  was  never  taken,  and  the  coun- 
try continued  to  hold  out  against  Akbar  during  his 


442  The  Mogul  Empire. 

entire  reign.     Chittore  is  a  fortified  town,  built  on 
the  summit  of  an  isolated  peak,  about  three  miles 
from  the  Pathar  Mountains.     It  was  the  ancient 
capital  of  Meywar,  built  by  Chitrung  Mori,   the 
Puar  king ;  and  for  several  centuries  it  was  the 
only  important  town  that  was  able  to  hold  out 
against  the  encroachments  of  Moslem  power.     The 
plateau  on   which  it  is   built   lies   southwest  j»nd 
northeast,  and  is  about  three  miles  long,  at  a  vary- 
ing height  of  from   two  hundred  and  fifty  to  four 
hundred  feet  above  the  plain.     It  is  a  naturally 
strong  position,  surmounted   by  admirable  works, 
the    sides  of   the  mountain  being    perpendicular, 
and  a  line  of  embattled  ramparts,  supported   by 
large  round  towers,  running  along  the  edge  of  the 
precipice,    render    it    almost    invulnerable.      Nor 
could  it  be  reduced  by  famine,  being  well  supplied 
with  water  from  numerous  reservoirs,  and  contain- 
ing also  immense  store-houses  and  granaries.     Yet, 
despite   all  these    advantages,  Chittore   has   been 
oftener  reduced  by  siege  than  almost  any  other 
town  in  India.     Its  weak  point  is  a  little  plateau 
on  the  south  side  of  the   mountain,  and  this  has 
in  every  instance  been  the   successful  point  of  re- 
duction.     Tradition    says   that   this   plateau    was 


Chittore.  443 

erected  by  Sultan  Ala-u-din,  as  the  place  from 
which  to  make  his  assault  in  1303,  and  that  the 
garrison  succumbed  to  his  forces  after  resisting  a 
siege  of  twelve  years.  It  was  also  from  this  point 
that  the  Maharajah  Scindia  bombarded  the  town. 
in  1792.  Dense  forests,  full  of  ferocious  beasts  of 
prey,  surround  the  base  of  the  mountain,  except 
the  small  portion  occupied  by  the  town  of  Toulaiti, 
about  half-way  up  the  western  side.  There  is  only 
one  entrance  to  Chittore,  which  is.  defended  by 
seven  gates  placed  at  intervals  up  the  ascent. 
Between  the  third  and  fourth  is  built  a  small 
cenotaph  of  white  marble,  to  mark  the  spot  where 
the  two  heroes,  Jeimul  and  Puttore,  fell  during  the 
siege  of  the  town  by  Akbar ;  and  near  by  is  the 
tomb  of  Ragonde,  another  martyr  of  the  Rajput 
cause,  who  is  now  worshipped  as  a  demi-god. 
Indeed,  the  whole  history  of  Chittore,  as  recorded 
by  its  bards,  and  handed  down  by  tradition,  is  one 
of  touching  devotion  and  almost  unparalleled 
heroism  on  the  part  of  the  Rajputs  —  even  the 
gentler  sex  vieing  with  their  husbands  and  fathers 
in  love  and  zeal  for  the  honor  of  their  devoted 
city.  More  than  once  the  entire  garrison  has  per- 
ished to  a  man,  kings  and  princes  have  calmly  laid 


444  The  Mogul  Empire. 

down  their  lives  for  their  country,  and  gentle 
women,  with  their  tender  babes,  have  faced  suffer- 
ing and  death  by  violence  and  by  the  still  more 
cruel  "sacrifice  of  Johur,"  without  a  murmuring 
word. 

Among  the  numerous  monumelits  of  this  once 
famous  city,  perhaps  the  most  noted  is  the  Kherut 
Khoumb,  or  "  Tower  of  the  Victory  of  Kho- 
umbhou,"  erected  by  the  Rana  of  that  name  to 
commemorate  the  victory  gained  over  the  allied 
armies  of  the  Sultans  of  Malwar  and  Guzerat. 
The  Kherut  is  a  square  tower  of  singular  beauty, 
more  than  a  hundred  feet  high,  built  in  nine 
stories,  and  once  profusely  adorned  with  superb 
balconies,  sculptures,  mouldings,  and  cornices, 
some  of  which  yet  remain  ;  but  many  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  vandalism  of  Moslem  invaders. 
The  ninth  stor}T,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  lan- 
tern tower,  is  surmounted  by  a  modern  dome,  the 
ancient  one  having  been  destroyed  by  lightning. 
Here  were  also  laid  up  the  slabs  of  white  marble 
containing  the  records  of  the  genealogy  and  chief 
acts  of  all  the  Ranas.  Of  these,  but  one  slab  re- 
mains, which  records  a  fulsome  tribute  to  the 
builder  of  the  tower,  and  the  date  of  its  erection, 


Pudmanee's  Sacrifice.  445 

1307.  According  to  the  accounts  of  the  time,  the 
ouilding  of  this  superb  tower  cost  ninety  lacs  of 
rupees,  or  14,500,000;  and  that  at  a  period  when 
the  proportionate  value  of  money  was  so  much 
greater  than  in  our  own  day. 

Among  other  remarkable  monuments,  are  the 
palace  of  the  Puar  king,  Chitrurig  Mori,  the 
founder  of  Chittore,  which  is  the  oldest  edifice  in 
the  fortress ;  the  palace  of  the  patriotic  Bhimsi, 
and  his  beautiful  queen,  Pudmanee  ;  and  near  the 
sacred  fountain  of  Q-aee  Moukh  or  the  "  Cow's 
Mouth,"  is  an  aperture  in  the  rock  that  leads  into 
the  immense  subterranean  galleries,  called  by  the 
Hindus,  Rani-Bindar,  "  Queens'  Chamber."  It 
was  in  this  cavern  that  the  peerless  queen,  Pud- 
manee, and  all  the  other  women  of  Chittore, 
amounting  to  several  thousand  in  number,  sacri- 
ficed their  lives  rather  than  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  Moslem  invaders  of  their  country,  at  the 
sacking  of  Chittore  by  Ala-u-din  in  1290.  After 
the  most  gallant  but  unsuccessful  defence,  the 
brave  Rajputs  filled  the  subterranean  apartments 
of  the  Rani-Bindar  with  inflammable  materials, 
and  on  these  were  heaped  all  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, the  jewels,  diamonds  and  treasure,  all  that 


446  The  Mogul  Empire. 

their  Moslem  foes  would  care  to  possess,  and  the 
torch  being  applied,  all  perished  together.     This  is 

the  "  Sacrifice  of  Johur  "  —  never  resorted  to  bu;. 

• 

in  such  desperate  cases,  to  save  women  of  rank 
from  being  dishonored. 

When  their  most  precious  possessions  had  been 
thus  provided  for,  the  gates  of  the  fortress  were 
thrown  open,  and  its  last  defenders,  with  the  Rana 
at  their  head,  rushing  with  drawn  swords  upon 
Ala's  army,  perished  to  a  man,  though  not  without 
inflicting  a  terrible  vengeance  on  the  Moslems, 
whom  they  hacked  and  butchered  without  mercy, 
probably  ten  for  one.  On  entering  Chittore,  the 
Sultan  found  only  a  silent  and  deserted  town,  over 
which  hung  a  cloud  of  foetid  smoke,  rising  out  of 
the  vaults  where  all  that  he  had  coveted  lay  in 
smouldering  ashes.  His  avowed  object  in  laying 
siege  to  Chittore,  both  in  1275,  and  again  in  1290, 
had  been  to  possess  himself  of  the  beautiful  queen 
Pudmanee,  whose  wondrous  graces  of  person  and 
character  are  still  handed  down  by  tradition. 
Twice  the  Moslem  conqueror  had  been  foiled  by 
this  lady  fair :  first,  by  a  well  executed  ruse  on  her 
part,  and  this  time  by  her  self-immolation  ;  and 
his  rage  vented  itself  in  the  demolition  of  all  the 


Chittore.  447 

buildings  within  the  fortress,  save  only  the  palace 
where  the  beautiful  queen  had  perished. 

When  this  grand,  invincible  people  had  again 
rallied  from  their  disaster,  and  Chittore  phoenix- 
like  had  risen  from  the  ashes  of  desolation  to  a 
higher  prosperity  under  the  glorious  reign  of 
Khoumbhou,  the  builder  of  the  tower  that  bears 
his  name,  and  of  numerous  other  stately  architect- 
ural wonders,  Chittore  was  again  besieged  in  1537, 
by  Sultan  Bahadour  Bajazet,  king  of  Guzerat. 
This  time,  the  fortress  of  the  devoted  city  was  un- 
dermined, taken  and  again  sacked ;  but  not  until 
the  brave  garrison  had  fallen  almost  to  a  man,  and 
their  wives  and  daughters,  more  than  a  thousand 
in  number,  led  by  the  queen  Kurriaveti,  had  im- 
molated themselves,  by  taking  their  position  on  a 
rock  that  had  been  undermined,  when  firing  the 
train,  they  ail  perished  in  an  instant. 

Twenty  years  later,  in  1557,  having  once  more 
risen  from  its  ruins,  Chittore  was  again  besieged, 
this  time  by  Akbar.  He  was  at  first  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss  by  Oudey  Singh  and  his  brave 
Rajputs ;  but  the  little  garrison  was  finally  over- 
powered by  numbers,  fighting  as  they  were  against 
the  whole  force  of  the  Tartan  emperor.  The 


448  The  Mogul  Empire. 

flower  of  the  Mey war  chivalry  were  cut  to  pieces ; 
the  widow  of  one  of  the  Omras,  who,  taking  her 
dead  husband's  place,  went  out  to  battle  beside  her 
son,  a  youth  of  sixteen,  and  her  young  daughter- 
in-law,  fell  fighting  bravely  while  both  lay  dead 
before  her :  two  heads  of  tribes,  Jeimul  and  Put- 
tore,  defended  the  sacred  city  with  a  bravery  re- 
membered even  to  this  day  by  Moslems  as  well  as 
Rajputs  ;  and  at  last  Jeimar,  when  he  had  been 
mortally  wounded  by  the  hand  of  Akbar  him- 
self, gave  the  signal  for  the  Johur,  and  nine 
queens,  five  princesses,  and  more  than  a  thousand 
other  women,  together  ascended  the  funeral  pyre, 
while  their  last  defenders,  satisfied  that  their  honor 
was  preserved,  rushed  to  meet  death  in  the  battle- 
field. When'  the.  city  fell  into  Akbar's  hands,  he 
caused  the  immolation  of  every  living  thing  found 
within  its  borders,  not  sparing  even  its  beautiful 
monuments  from  desecration  and  defacement.  But 
the  race  that  had  proved  such  invincible  opposers. 
of  Moslem  rule  could  not  be  extinguished.  Be- 
sides those  scattered  over  the  mountain  villages, 
the  illustrious  Rana  Oudey  Singh  had  escaped 
with  a  band  of  brave  adherents  ;  and  he  shortly 


Chittore  Deserted.  449 

after  laid  the  foundation  of  Oudeypore,  "  City  of 
the  Rising  Sun,"  to  commemorate  his  name. 

Chittore,  the  invincible,  was  deserted,  and  this 
royal  abode  that  for  a  thousand  years  had  towered 
above  all  the  surrounding  region,  has  become  the 
haunt  of  wild  beasts,  with  its  sacred  places  dese- 
crated or  in  ruins.  Formerly  it  was  called  the 
"  Holy  Town,"  but  now,  though  still  considered  a 
sacred  place  of  the  former  times,  "  it  is  given  over 
to  evil  spirits,  and  the  Ranas  are  solemnly  forbid- 
den to  enter  its  precincts."  Not  one  of  them  has 
set  foot  on  the  rock  since  Oudey  Singh  left  its  hor- 
rors on  that  fatal  day  ;  and  "  those  who  have  at- 
tempted to  enter  the  desecrated  town  have  felt 
themselves  repelled  by  an  unseen  hand." 

The  great  conqueror  returned  from  the  reduc- 
tion of  Chittore  with  more  than  ordinary  elation, 
though  nearly  all  his  military  expeditions  were 
crowned  with  success.  But  the  cruel  and  jealous 
spirit  of  his  vizier,  Behram,  grew  more  and  more 
unbearable,  till  Akbar  found  it  necessary  to  dis- 
miss him,  and,  as  the  least  objectionable  method 
of  doing  so,  sent  him  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca ; 
and  on  the  road  thither  he  was  assassinated  by  one 
29 


450  The  Mogul  Empire. 

of  the  many  enemies  he  had  made  by  his  imperious 
and  unjust  despotism  as  vizier. 

A  war  with  the  Afghans  of  the  North-eastern 
Provinces  followed  Akbar's  other  aggressive  move- 
ments ;  and  then  one  with  Cashmere,  both  of 
which  were  soon  "  compelled  to  accept  the  terms 
offered  them,  namely,  complete  subjection  to 
Akbar's  authority."  His  power  was  now  firmly 
established  throughout  the  whole  of  Central  India  ; 
and  Cashmere  seems  from  this  time  to  have  been 
the  summer  residence  of  the  emperors  of  Delhi,  so 
long  as  this  monarchy  lasted. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE  MOGUL    EMPIRE  —  FROM   AKBAR   TO   SHAH 
JEHAN. 

IN  1596,  the  Deccan  became  the  scene  of  Akbar's 
military  exploits.  Several  of  his  generals 
were  first  dispatched  to  different  fields  in  that 
country ;  and  after  about  two  years,  he  joined 
them  at  the  scene  of  operations  before  Ahmed- 
negar. 

This  city  was  founded  by  Ahmed  Nizam  Shah, 
in  1493.  It  was  a  part  of  the  Tartan  empire  from 
1634  to  1707,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Mah- 
rattas.  In  1797  it  was  taken  by  Scindia,  and  six 
years  later  was  wrested  from  him  by  General 
Wellesley.  Soon  afterwards,  it  was  restored  to 
the  Peishwa,  and  did  not  revert  to  the  English 
until  1817.  Its  fortress  is  considered  one  of  the 

451 


452  The  Mogul  Empire. 

strongest  in  India,  being  surrounded  by  an  impen- 
etrable hedge  of  prickly-pear,  in  addition  to  its 
stone  walls  of  thirty  feet  high.  Akbar's  purpose  was 
not  to  destroy  the  city,  but  to  compel  the  reigning 
princes  to  submit  to  his  authority ;  and  this  end  he 
fully  accomplished  before  quitting  the  Deccan, 
which  he  left  in  the  hands  of  his  minister,  Abul  Fazl, 
whilst  he  proceeded  with  all  speed  to  Agra.  "  This 
was  rendered  necessary  by  the  rebellious  conduct 
of  his  oldest  son,  Selim,  who,  instigated  by  bad 
advisers,  and  under  the  influence  of  opium  and 
wine,  had  seized  upon  Allahabad  and  declared  him- 
self king  of  Oudh  and  Behar.  This  rupture  was, 
however,  healed  shortly  afterward ;  Selim  was  de- 
clared heir  to"  the  throne,  admitted  at  court,  and 
permitted  to  wear  royal  ornaments."  * 

Akbar  was  now  on  the  verge  of  sixty,  and  the 
exposures  and  hardships  of  his  military  life  were 
beginning  to  affect  his  health  and  bring  on  pre- 
mature infirmities.  For  several  years  he  continued 
to  have  frequent  and  severe  attacks  of  illness,  one 
of  which  terminated  his  life,  in  the  autumn  of 
1605,  when  he  had  just  completed  the  sixty-third 
year  of  his  age,  and  had  entered  the  fiftieth  of  his 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   MAHADEVA,   KAJRAHA 


454  The  Mogul  Empire. 

reign.  Nearly  his  whole  life  had  been  passed  in 
warfare  ;  yet  he  found  time  for  the  exercise  of  the 
arts  of  peace,  and  it  was  often  said  of  him  that 
"  he  deemed  no  department  of  his  government, 
and  no  details  of  his  vast  and  splendid  establish- 
ment too  insignificant  to  deserve  its  special  share 
of  regular  attention."  While  possessed  of  great 
military  genius,  he  was  also  a  lover  of  science  and 
literature,  encouraged  learning,  instituted  schools, 
promoted  commerce,  improved  the  roads,  reformed 
the  revenue  laws,  diminished  the  taxes  of  his  peo- 
ple, and  gave  the  fullest  liberty  of  conscience, 
allowing  no  man  to  be  persecuted  for  his  religious 
creed  or  practice.  His  eldest  son,  Selim,  was  with 
him  during  his  last  days,  and  received  from  his 
dying  hands  the  royal  scymeter.  No  opposition 
was  made  to  the  succession  of  Selim,  who,  under 
the  title  of  Jehanghir  or  "  Conqueror  of  the 
World,"  ascended  the  throne  rendered  immortal 
by  Akbar's  brilliant  reign.  The  first  trouble  of 
the  new  monarch  was  caused  by  the  rebellion  of 
his  own  son,  Khosru,  who  proceeded  with  a  body 
of  troops  he  had  levied  to  seize  on  the  city  of 
Lahore  ;  but  he  was  defeated  in  the  very  first  en- 
gagement with  his  father ;  was  taken  back  to  the 


Lahore  in  its  Grlory.  457 

Capital  loaded  with  chains,  and  kept  close  pris- 
oner for  a  year.  Lahore  was  in  its  glory  then,  as 
seen  by  Lalla  Rookh,  when  "  mausoleum  and  shrines, 
magnificent  and  numberless,  affected  her  heart  and 
imagination,  and  where  death  appeared  to  share 
equal  honors  with  heaven."  Now  many  of  the  old 
monuments  have  disappeared,  and  others  have 
been  changed,  as  for  example,  the  magnificent 
tomb  of  a  cousin  of  Akbar  has  been  converted 
into  a  very  commodious  residence  for  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor, and  other  mausoleums  were  used  as 
dwellings  for  Seikh  officers  before  the  English 
came  into  possession.  The  flat  roofs  and  carved 
lattices  give  to  Lahore  of  the  present  day  an 
aspect  rather  of  Cairo  than  India  ;  and  there  is,  iill 
over  the  city,  with  all  its  gayety  and  splendor,  a 
quaint  admixture  of  Tartar  dwellings  and  soft 
oriental  scenery,  and  of  many  nations,  with  cos- 
tumes and  linguals  innumerable.  This  city  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  sometime  during  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century  of  our  era,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  reign  of  Akbar  that  it  attained  any 
supremacy.  Jehanghir  was  fond  of  it  as  a  resi- 
dence, and  fixed  his  court  here  in  1622,  a  court 
graced  by  the  peerless  Nour  Mahal,  "  Light  of  the 


458  The  Mogul  Empire. 

Harem,"  whom  Jehanghir  had  wedded  in  1611. 
She  was  the  widow  of  a  late  governor  of  Bengal, 
and  had  won  the  emperor's  regards  by  her  great 
beauty  and  accomplishments.  She  is  said  to  have 
exerted  an  extraordinary  influence  over  this  proud 
potentate  ;  but  she  was  less  a  favorite  with  his 
sons.  Especially  was  she  disliked,  and  her  undue 
influence  suspected  as  being  opposed  to  his  inter- 
ests, by  the  third  son,  Korrun,  afterwards  Shah 
Jehan,  the  successor  of  Jehanghir.  So  restive 
did  the  prince  become  under  her  influence  and 
plottings,  that  at  length  he  left  the  court  in  indig- 
nation, and  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  by  laying 
siege  to  Agra.  In  this  daring  attempt  he  was  de- 
feated with  heavy  loss,  but  he  refused  the  proffered 
reconciliation  of  his  father  and  continued  to  absent 
himself  from  court,  awaiting  opportunity  for  a  new 
outbreak.  About  this  time  a  difficulty  with 
Mohabet  Khan,  the  governor  of  the  Punjaub, 
occurred,  of  which,  also  Nour  Mahal  was  the  chief 
cause,  and  which  came  very  near  proving  fatal  to 
the  emperor.  Mohabet  so  far  succeeded  as  to  get 
possession  of  the  person  of  Jehanghir.  He  was, 
however,  released  by  a  well-directed  ruse  of  Nour 
Mahal ;  and  a  reconciliation  was  then  effected  be- 


Death  of  Jehanghir.  459 

tween  the  emperor  and  the  governor,  who  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  dispatched  to 
the  South  against  Shah  Jehan,  who  still  continued 
in  open  revolt.  But  Mohabet,  instead  of  attack- 
ing the  young  prince,  united  with  him  against  their 
common  foe,  Nour  Mahal. 

While  affairs  were  in  this  posture,  1627,  the 
emperor,  whose  health  had  for  some  time  been  in 
a  precarious  condition,  set  out  for  Cashmere,  in- 
tending to  spend  a  month  or  two  in  resting  and 
recruiting  among  the  mountains.  But  the  change 
proving  unfavorable,  his  physicians  directed  an 
immediate  return  to  a  warmer  climate.  As  a  last 
hope  he  was  conveyed  toward  Lahore,  but  expired 
suddenly  on  the  way  to  that  city,  in  the  sixtieth 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  twenty -second  of  his 
reign.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  this  monarch, 
in  1615,  that  the  English  Embassy,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  visited  Ajmere,  the  object 
being  to  form  a  treaty  of  amity  with  the  "  Great 
Mogul,"  as  the  emperor  was  then  called.  Sir 
Thomas  spent  some  three  years  in  the  country, 
and  wrote  a  most  vivid  description  of  the  court  of 
Delhi,  and  the  state  of  the  country  at  that  period. 
This  work  contains  frequent  allusions  to  the 


460  The  Mogul  Empire. 

emperor  Jehanghir,  and  his  luxurious  mode  of 
living,  as  well  as  many  incidents  of  his  private 
life  and  character.  The  great  wealth  of  this 
monarch  may  be  judged  from  several  circumstances 
mentioned  by  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  among  others,  the 
gifts  presented  by  him  to  the  bride  of  one  of  his 
sons,  namely  :  "•  A  pearl  necklace  valued  at 
$300,000,  a  ruby  worth  $125,000,  and  a  yearly 
maintenance  of  $150,000." 

As  soon  as  tidings  of  the  emperor's  death 
reached  Shah  Jehan,  he  repaired  by  forced  marches 
to  Agra,  taking  Mohabet  with  him,  and  there 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed.  There  was  an 
attempt  at  resistance  made  by  Nour  Mahal,  with 
the  hope  of  securing  the  sceptre  for  her  protege, 
Shah  Riah,  Jehanghir's  second  son,  but  without 
effect.  At  the  first  encounter,  Nour  Mahal's  forces 
were  defeated  and  her  favorite  slain,  and  she  soon 
after  retired  to  private  life ;  while  Shah  Jehan  was 
left  in  quiet  possession  of  his  inheritance,  an 
empire  and  a  throne,  with  the  beautiful  Agra  for 
his  capital,  A.  D.  1627. 

Agra  was  only  an  insignificant  Jat  town  when 
the  emperor  Secunder  took  possession  of  it  in 
1488 ;  and  it  was  more  than  a  third  of  a  century 


Agra  and  the   Taj.  461 

later,  when  Shere  Shah,  who  had  been  the  rival  of 
Humayun,  and  succeeded  in  driving  him  into 
exile,  built  the  citadel  around  the  palace.  The 
splendor  of  Agra  dates  back  no  farther  than  the 
reign  of  Akbar,  who,  in  1556,  made  it  his  capital, 
under  the  name  of  Akbarabad,  and  enriched  it 
with  many  monuments.  By  him  the  old  Pathan 
fortress  was  razed  to  the  ground,  and  replaced 
from  the  ver\r  foundations  by  a  vast  citadel,  with 
marble  palaces  and  mosques  ;  while  his  successors, 
Jehanghir  and  Shah  Jehan,  endowed  Agra  with 
the  Etmaddowlah  and  the  wonderful  Taj.  But 
when  the  beloved  wife,  the  empress  Mumtazi 
Mahal,  for  whose  mausoleum  the  Taj  was  erected, 
had  been  laid  away  among  its  splendors,  the  sor- 
rowing emperor  forsook  the  royal  abode  her  pres- 
ence no  longer  graced,  and  took  up  his  residence 
at  Delhi,  which  has  since  been  the  sole  capital  of 
India,  as  it  had  long  been  one  of  the  imperial 
residences.  In  1761,  Agra  was  sacked  by  the 
savage  Jats  of  Souraj  Mull ;  about  fifteen  years 
later  the  Mahrattas  carried  off  what  the  Jats  had 
spared;  and  in  1803  the  city  was  taken  from 
Scindia  by  General  Lake,  and  has  since  remained 
under  the  control  of  the  British  Government. 


462  The  Mogul  Empire. 

During  the  Seapoy  rebellion  of  1857,  most  of 
the  European  houses  were  destroyed ;  but  the 
English  and  other  foreign  residents  took  refuge  in 
the  fort,  and  maintained  a  gallant  defence  until 
relieved  by  Colonel  Greathed.  Its  population, 
which  had  greatly  diminished  under  its  various 
reverses,  has  rapidly  increased  of  late  years,  and 
now  numbers  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thous- 
and. 

Agra  is  held  in  high  veneration  by  the  Hindus, 
as  the  city  of  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  under  the 
name  of  Parasu  Rama.  Agra,  now  the  capital  of 
the  northwest  provinces,  is  noted  throughout 
India  for  its  superb  monuments.  The  city  is  sit- 
uated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  is  con- 
nected by  various  railways  with  Bengal,  the  Pun- 
jaub  and  the  Deccan,  and  holds  commercial 
intercourse  also  with  Rajputana  and  the  Doab. 

It  is  a  bright,  clean,  cheerful  city,  its  dwellings 
comparatively  new,  though  built  in  the  main  from 
debris  of  former  buildings  from  the  times  of 
Akbar,  on  to  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  English. 
In  the  southwest  section,  almost  a  mile  from  the 
city  proper,  are  the  English  cantonments,  contain- 
ing besides  the  barracks,  bazaars  and  churches  for 


Buildings  of  Agra.  463 

the  troops,  many  fine  mansions  surrounded  by 
gardens  and  green  lawns.  The  great  fortress  of 
Akbar  is  in  the  southern  section.  It  is  built 
mainly  of  red  sandstone,  and  looks  imposing,  but 
is  by  no  means  formidable,  and  could  not  stand 
against  a  sharp  cannonade,  as  was  proved  by 
General  Lake's  siege  in  1803. 

The  Jummah  Musjid  or  Cathedral  Mosque  of 
Agra,  is  a  superb  structure  of  the  time  of  Akbar, 
and  built  of  red  sandstone  and  white  marble, 
standing  on  a  marble  terrace,  and  the  whole  sur- 
mounted by  three  Mogul  domes  of  great  height. 

The  Dewani  Am  or  "  Palace  of  Justice,"  was 
once  a  grand  palace  built  on  the  plan  of  the 
Dewan  Khas  of  Ambir ;  but  it  is  now  the  arsenal 
of  the  citadel,  and  the  "  Court "  is  filled  with  can- 
non and  shot.  Among  the  curiosities  collected 
there  by  the  English,  are  the  throne  of  Akbar,  and 
the  celebrated  gates  of  Somnath.  The  throne  of 
Akbar  is  a  long  seat  of  marble  inlaid  with  pre- 
cious stones,  and  surmounted  by  a  graceful  canopy 
of  white  marble.  "  The  gates  of  Somnath  "  are 
two  heavy  doors  of  finely-carved  wood,  four  yards 
high.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  they 
guarded  the  entrance  to  the  temple  of  Krishna  at 


464  The  Mogul  Empire. 

Somnath  in  Guzerat ;  but  in  the  tenth  century, 
Sultan  Mahmoud,  the  fierce  iconoclast,  after  de- 
stroying all  the  idols  of  Somnath,  and  pillaging 
the  town,  carried  off  these  gates  to  his  capital  at 
Ghazni.  The  Brahmins  offered  immense  bribes 
for  the  redemption  of  the  image  of  Krishna,  but 
the  Sultan  destroyed  it  with  his  own  hands,  and  in 
doing  so,  found  within  it,  jewels  of  immense  value. 
So  it  is  probable  the  pious  Brahmins  had  other 
motives  besides  a  holy  veneration  for  the  image  of 
their  god  in  wishing  to  rescue  it  from  the  hands 
of  the  Moslems.  After  the  conquest  of  Afghan- 
istan, when  Ghuzni  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  Lord  Ellenborough  removed  these  gates 
to  Agra,  and  made  them  the  subject  of  a  grand 
proclamation.  Behind  the  arsenal  is  the  imperial 
palace,  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  consist- 
ing of  numerous  pavilions,  with  gilded  domes,  con- 
nected by  terraces,  galleries  and  castellated  walls, 
all  built  of  the  pure  white  marble  of  Rajputana ; 
and  the  courts  are  still  planted  with  flowers,  the 
plats  intersected  by  numerous  small  canals.  The 
interior  of  the  spacious  apartments  is  adorned  with 
exquisite  mosaics,  and  the  windows  are  half-closed 
by  curtains  of  marble,  so  finely  carved  as  to  repre- 


H.  I— 30 


A  Marvellous  Stone.  467 

sent  lace.  The  emperor's  bath-room  has  panels  of 
lapis-lazuli  inlaid  with  gold,  silver  mirrors  and 
fountains,  and  all  the  appointments  that  the  most 
sensuous  taste  could  contrive. 

On  the  terrace  fronting  the  Dewan  Khas,  is  a 
large  slab  of  black  marble,  where  Akbar  the  Great 
used  to  sit  to  administer  justice  to  his  people. 
The  slab  is  broken  in  half,  and  in  the  centre  are 
two  red  spots.  Tradition  says  that  when  Agra 
was  taken  by  the  Jats,  in  1761,  Souraj  Mull  seated 
himself  on  this  slab,  which  immediately  gaped 
open  and  blood  was  seen  to  issue  from  the  apper- 
ture ;  and  years  afterward,  when  Lord  Ellenbor- 
ough  made  the  same  attempt,  the  stone  broke 
quite  in  two.  Near  the  imperial  seat  is  a  smaller 
slab  of  white  marble,  designed  for  the  court  buf- 
foon, who  used  to  mimic  every  action  of  the 
emperor. 

The  Taj  was  built  by  the  emperor  Shah  Jehan, 
as  a  mausoleum  for  the  empress  Mumtazi  or  Mum- 
taj  Mahal,  his  favorite  wife,  who  died  in  giving 
birth  to  her  eighth  child,  the  princess  Jehanara. 
In  the  great  cemetery  around  the  mausoleum  of 
Nizam-u-din,  on  the  road  to  Delhi,  not  far  from 


468  The  Mogul  Empire. 

the  Kootub,  is  the  tomb  of  this  princess,  the  Begum 
Jehanara,  on  which  is  inscribed  the  epitaph : 

"  Let  no  rich  canopy  cover  my  grave, 

This  grass  is  the  best  covering  for  the  poor  in  Spirit, 

The  humble,  transitory  Jehanara,  the  disciple  of  the  holy  men 

of  Cheist, 
The  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan." 

But  despite  this  humble  prayer,  the  dust  of  this 
royal  lady  reposes  in  a  regal  sarcophagus,  sur- 
rounded by  a  screen  of  marble. 

The  Empress  Mumtaj  Mahal,  famous  alike  for 
her  beauty  and  her  talents,  inspired  in  her  hus- 
band such  supreme  love  and  admiration  that  he 
resolved,  after  her  death,  to  raise  to  her  memory 
the  most  beautiful  monument  that  had  ever  been 
built  within  the  memory  of  man.  After  long  con- 
sultation with  all  the  architects  of  the  countries 
around,  the  plan  of  Isa  Mohammed  was  adopted, 
and  the  building  was  begun  in  the  year  1630.  Its 
construction  occupied  twenty  thousand  men  for 
twenty-two  years;  and  nearly  every  part  of  the 
empire  was  levied  on  for  the  various  materials 
used.  Rajputana  furnished  the  marble  and  pink 
sandstone,  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  cart 
loads  in  all ;  the  jaspers  came  from  the  Punjaub, 
cornelians  from  Broach,  turquoises  from  Thibet 


The  Taj.  469 

agates  from  Yeman,  coral  from  Arabia,  Onyx  from 
Persia,  lapis-lazuli  from  Ceylon,  garnets  from 
Bundelcund,  diamonds  from  Punnah,  chalcedonies 
from  Arabia,  rock-crystals  from  Malwar,  sapphires 
from  Columbo,  and  conglomerates  from  Jesulmore, 
Gwalior,  and  Sikri.  Outside  these  gratuitous  dona- 
tions, and  the  forced  labor  of  workmen,  the  cost 
of  the  Taj  was  estimated  at  three  millions  of  dol- 
lars. Almost  every  visitor  to  the  Taj  essays  a 
description  of  what  lie  in  the  very  outset  admits 
to  be  indescribable.  Yet  as  there  are  thousands  of 
readers  who  are  not  travellers,  and  who  cannot 
therefore  see  the  Taj  for  themselves,  the  following 
statistics  are  given  as  a  means  of  judging  of  the 
size  and  proportions  of  this  most  wonderful  monu- 
ment. 

The  Taj,  which  is  built  near  the  banks  of  the 
Jumna,  about  a.  mile  east  of  the  fort,  stands  on  a 
terrace  of  pink  sandstone  nine  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  long,  and  three  hundred  and  eighty  feet  wide, 
one  end  being  laved  by  the  Jumna,  and  the  other 
rising  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  garden. 
In  the  centre  of  this  terrace  stands  a  superb  plat- 
form of  white  marble  which  is  fifteen  feet  high, 
and  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  feet  on  each  side. 


470  The  Mogul  Empire. 

This  forms  a  pedestal  for  the  mausoleum  itself,  an 
irregular  octagon,  its  longest  sides  measuring  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet.     It  has  a  terraced  roof, 
with  a  pavilion  at  each  corner,  and  a  magnificent 
dome  in  the  centre,  its  golden   crescent  rising  two 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  above   the  level  of  the 
river.     Each  facade  is  pierced  with  a  high  Sara- 
cenic gate,  flanked  on  the  outer  side  by  two  rows 
of  niches  ;  and  every  line  and  proportion  has  been 
calculated  with  such  consummate  art,  that  not  the 
slightest  defect  can  be  detected.      One  lady,  while 
gazing  on  this   wonderful    structure,  said  to  her 
husband  :    "  I  cannot  criticise,  but  I  can  feel  in 
such  a  presence  as  this ;  and   I  know  I  would  will- 
ingly die  to-morrow  to  have  such  a  tomb  as  this 
Taj."     Others  have  said,   or  written  :    "  The  Taj 
was  built  by  Titans  and  finished  by  goldsmiths." 
"'The  inspiration  was  from   heaven,  and  the  execu- 
tion   worthy    of    the    conception."     "  A   poem    in 
marble  !  "     "  The  sigh  of  a  broken  heart !  "     "  Po- 
etic marble  arrayed  in  eternal  glory  !  "   "  Too  pure 
to  be  the  work  of  human   hands !  "     The  entire 
edifice,  from  base  to  summit,  is  built  of  pure  white 
marble,   inlaid   in   mosaics,    forming    inscriptions, 
arabesques,   and   devices,   all    arranged    with   ex- 


The    Taj.  471 

quisite  taste,  and  perfect  conception  of  tints  and 
shades  ;  every  particle  of  inlaying  done  with  the 
patient  care  and  unwearying  assiduity  of  a  Chinese 
artist.  The  beauty  of  the  interior  surpasses,  it' 
possible,  the  outside ;  ceiling,  walls,  and  tomb- 
stones being  one  mass  of  mosaics,  representing 
birds,  flowers,  and  fruits.  The  tombs  of  the 
empress  and  Shah  Jehan  are  in  the  centre  of  the 
hall  enclosed  by  a  marble  screen  of  lace-work, 
through  which  the  subdued  light  is  reflected  in 
mellow  tints,  and  a  tender,  musical  echo,  as  from 
fairy-land,  falls  softly  on  the  ear.  This  echo  is 
caused  by  the  dome  being  completely  closed  by 
the  ceiling  of  the  hall,  thus  forming  a  gigantic 
whispering  gallery.  Among  other  decorations  of 
the  interior,  is  the  entire  letter-press  of  the  Koran 
from  beginning  to  end  iu  exquisite  mosaics  of 
costly  gems. 

The  left  bank  of  the  Jumna  is  connected  with 
the  town  by  a  viaduct  and  railway,  quite  a  little 
village  having  sprung  up  on  that  side  of  the  river. 
Near  by  is  the  famous  Etmaddowlah,  the  mauso- 
leum erected  in  1610,  by  the  emperor  Jehanghir, 
over  the  tomb  of  his  father-in-law,  Kevaji  Acias, 
<£rand  Akmet-oud-dowlah,  (of  which  Etmaddowlah 


472  The  Moyul  Empire. 

is  a  corruption),  a  treasurer  of  the  empire,  and 
lather  of  the  famous  Nour  Mahal,  Jehanghir's 
favorite  wife. 

The  Province  of  Agra  is  one  of  the  six  north- 
western provinces  of  British  India,  that  together 
constitute  one  of  the  ten  administrations  into 
which  India  is  divided.  It  contains  an  area  of 
nine  thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-nine 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  four  and 
a  half  millions,  mostly  Hindus.  The  land,  though 
generally  flat  and  arid,  is  well  watered  by  the 
Ganges,  Jumna,  and  Chumbul,  and  by  means  of 
irrigation  produces  good  crops  of  grain,  cotton, 
indigo  and  pulse. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE   MOGUL   EMPIRE  —  AURUNGZEBE. 

THE  reign  of  Shah  Jehan  was  marked  from  its 
very  beginning  by  the  greatest  extrava- 
gance and  extreme  love  of  display.  Beautiful  and 
costly  buildings  were  erected ;  and  the  anniversa- 
ries of  his  accession  were  kept  with  a  profusion  of 
outlay  that  was  unusual  even  in  those  days  of 
oriental  lavishness.  The  first  of  these  celebrations 
is  said  to  have  cost  nearly  ten  millions  of  dollars. 
The  city  of  Delhi  was  rebuilt  by  him,  in  a  style  of 
wondrous  beauty  and  on  an  extensive  scale.  His 
famous  peacock  throne,  the  wonder  of  his  own 
age,  and  of  many  succeeding  ones,  was  one  blaz- 
ing mass  of  precious  stones,  diamonds,  sapphires, 
emeralds,  rubies,  opals  and  pearls,  so  arranged  as  to 
represent  the  plumage  of  a  peacock  in  its  natural 

473 


474  The  Mogul  Umpire. 

state.  This  superb  throne  is  said  to  have  cost 
thirty-two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  The 
revenues  of  his  kingdom  must  have  been  immense, 
for  with  all  his  profuse  expenditures,  and  costly 
wars,  there  was  at  one  time  an  accumulation  in 
his  treasury  of  coined  mone}^  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  besides 
fabulous  quantities  of  costly  jewels  and  massive 
gold  plate,  and  adornments  of  the  state  apart- 
ments. Despite  his  undutiful  conduct  prior  to  his 
father's  death,  he  was  as  a  sovereign  most  ex- 
emplary in  the  performance  of  public  and  private 
duties,  in  which  he  displayed  uniformly  a  wise 
consideration,  united  with  a  generous  liberality. 
Even  the  large  sums  expended  on  the  throne  and 
the  Taj,  his  two  most  costly  works,  gave  employ- 
ment and  the  means  of  living  to  thousands  of  his 
subjects,  to  whom  it  was  undoubtedly  better  to 
pay  wages  than  alms.  As  a  ruler,  a  warrior  and  a 
legislator,  he  has  had  few  equals  among  oriental 
monarchs ;  and  despite  his  lavish  outlays,  un- 
equalled by  those  of  any  of  his  race,  his  people 
were  subjected  to  no  extra  taxation  for  a  single 
time  during  his  reign  of  thirty  years,  but  were  in 


Reign  of  Shah  Jehan.  477 

the  main  more  lightly  burdened  than  any  of  their 
ancestors- had  been.* 

The  chief  military  exploits  of  this  reign  were 
the  effectual  repulse  of  the  Uzbee  invaders  of 
Cabul,  who  were  driven  back  with  frightful  loss ; 
the  summary  chastisement  inflicted  on  the  Afghan 
general,  Lodi,  in  his  repeated  iiivasions  of  the 
Deccan  ;  and  the  quelling  of  various  internal  dis- 
sensions and  revolts.  Less  happily  ended  some 
difficulties  with  the  Mahratta  chieftain,  Sevaji ;  and 
several  acts  of  insubordination  on  the  part  of 
Aurungzebe,  the  emperor's  third  son,  culminating 
at  last  in  a  severe  encounter  between  the  three 
princes :  Dara,  the  eldest  son  on  one  side,  with  an 
army  of  some  fifty  thousand  horse,  and  the 
younger  princes,  Morad  and  Aurungzebe,  on  the 
other,  with  a  somewhat  smaller,  but  better-dis- 
ciplined army,  that  gained  a  decisive  victory,  thus 
closing  the  brilliant  reign  of  Shah  Jehan,  and 
ushering  in  that  of  Aurungzebe.  Prince  Dara's 
defeat  was  so  desperate  that  with  about  two  thous- 
and followers,  he  fled  toward  Delhi ;  Shah  Jehan 
who  was  alarmingly  ill  at  Agra,  was  imprisoned 
there  in  his  palace  for  the  remaining  seven  years  of 

'  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


478  The  Mogul  Empire. 

his  life  ;  Prince  Morad  was  confined  in  the  strong 
fort  of  Gwalior,  where  he  was  afterwards  executed 
by  the  order  of  Aurungzebe  ;  and  the  conqueror 
was  proclaimed  emperor  under  the  title  of  Alam- 
ghir,  the  name  by  which  he  is  always  spoken  of 
by  Indians.  Dara,  the  eldest  brother,  wandered 
as  a  fugitive  for  several  years  in  the  vicinity  of 
Delhi  and  Ahmedabad,  when  he  was  captured  and 
put  to  death  at  Delhi.  Shan  Jehan  lived  seven 
years  after  his  imprisonment,  in  indifferent  health, 
but  comfortably  provided  for  amid  the  scenes  of 
his  early  felicity  ;  perhaps  not  unwilling  to  resign 
the  cares  of  sovereignty  for  retirement  and  rest  in 
his  declining  years.  He  died  in  his  own  beautiful 
citadel  at  Agra,  A.  D.  1666. 

Among  the  varied  endowments  of  the  new 
emperor,  seems  to  have  been  a  trio  of  names.  His 
proper  name,  and  that  by  which  he  was  long  called, 
was  Mohammed  ;  as  a  special  favorite  of  his  grand- 
father, Jehanghir,  he  was  called  by  him,  Aurung- 
zebe, i.  e.,  "  Ornament  of  the  Throne,"  and  when 
about  to  be  proclaimed,  he  himself  selected  the 
cognomen,  Alam-ghir,  "  Conqueror  of  the  World ;  " 
and  he  was  accustomed  to  have  carried  before  him, 
as  his  symbol,  a  golden  globe.  But  to  show  that 


Aurungzebe.  479 

he  had  not  yet  entered  into  full  possession  of  his 
dominions,  he  used  to  tear  off  a  corner  of  every 
sheet  of  paper  used  in  his  correspondence. 

In  the  year  1650,  when  about  thirty  years  of 
age,  this  prince  had  been  appointed  by  his  father 
viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  where  he  had  previously 
commanded  several  military  expeditions.  Here, 
while  affecting  great  zeal  for  the  Moslem  faith, 
and  unqualified  obedience  to  the  commands  of  his 
father  and  sovereign,  the  ambitious  prince  was 
amassing  for  himself  great  wealth,  and  gathering 
experience  as  a  military  leader,  to  be  used  against 
his  own  parent ;  his  treasonable  plottings  resulting, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  the  erection  of  his  own  fortune 
upon  the  ruins  of  his  entire  family.  Talents  of  a 
brilliant  order  were  the  heritage  of  Aurungzebe  ; 
and  he  seems  to  have  possessed  withal  the  happy 
tact  of  profiting  by  opportunities  whenever  they 
presented.  His  reign  was  the  period  of  greatest 
prosperity  in  the  history  of  his  race  in  India,  where 
his  empire  included  nearly  the  entire  peninsula, 
with  Cabul  on  the  west  and  Assam  on  the  east. 
For  the  first  ten  years  of  his  administration,  the 
country  enjoyed  almost  unbroken  peace  ;  and  his 
wisdom  was  especially  manifest  in  anticipating  and 


480  The  Mogul  Empire. 

assuaging  a  famine  ;  and  later  in  suppressing  an 
insurrection  of  Hindu  devotees  headed  by  a  female 
saint.  A  far  greater  misfortune  lay  in  store  for 
Aurungzebe  in  the  doings  of  the  Mahrattas  —  a 
race  of  men  of  whom  little  was  known  prior  to 
the  reign  of  Shah  Jehan,  save  their  casual  mention 
by  one  of  the  Mohammedan  historians  ;  and  whose 
influence  has  been  scarcely  recognized,  until  they 
were  brought  into  notice  by  an  adventurer  named 
Sevaji.  Against  this  almost  invincible  leader, 
Aurungzebe  sent  in  vain  his  most  experienced 
generals,  and  he  determined  to  take  the  field  in 
person  against  this  redoubtable  foe.  From  this 
period  he  resided  over  twenty  years  in  the  Deccan, 
bringing  the  Carnatic  into  quiet  submission  and 
ruling  an  empire,  that  in  wealth  and  population, 
has  seldom  been  surpassed.  India  owes  to  Aurung- 
zebe several  of  her  finest  bridges,  hospitals  and 
mosques.  Among  the  latter  is  one  in  the  town  of 
Aurungabad,  built  in  connection  with  the  beauti- 
ful mausoleum  of  Rahia  Dourani,  erected  by 
Aurungzebe  in  memory  of  his  favorite  daughter. 
It  was  the  design  of  this  emperor  to  build  as 
gorgeous  a  tomb  as  the  celebrated  Taj,  of  which 
this  is  an  evident  copy,  but  in  no  respect  its  equal. 


H.  I.— 3.1 


Aurungabad.  483 

The  town  contains  another  mausoleum  of  even 
greater  notoriety  than  that  of  the  Rahia  —  the 
tomb  of  Shah  Sonfi,  the  famous  Moslem  saint, 
standing  in  the  centre  of  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town.  Aurungabad, 
formerly  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
mme,  was  for  a  short  time  the  residence  of 
Aurungzebe  and  his  court ;  but  it  contains  now 
little  besides  its  ruins  to  remind  one  of  a  royal 
city.  Scarcely  enough  remains  of  the  emperor's 
palace  on  the  banks  of  the  Doundhna,  to  judge  of 
its  original  appearance.  Probably  even  in  its 
palmiest  days,  this  now  forsaken  abode  of  royalty 
was  inferior  in  splendor  to  most  of  the  monuments 
left  by  the  "  Great  Moguls  ;  "  and  the  pillaging  pro- 
pensities of  the  Mahrattas  doubtless  found  exer- 
cise in  dismantling  it  while  in  their  possession. 
The  province,  which  contains  about  fifty  thousand 
square  miles,  was  incorporated  with  the  empire  by 
Shah  Jehan  in  1633 ;  later  it  was  taken  by  the 
Mahrattas,  then  by  the  Nizam,  and  last  of  all  it 
passed  under  British  rule. 

About  four  leagues  north  of  the  city  is  the 
celebrated  fortress  of  Daoulatabad,  built  on  a  huge 
conical  block  of  granite,  that  stands  isolated  in 


484  The  Mogul  Empire. 

solitary  grandeur,  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  plain. 
From  its  peculiar  position,  it  is  a  very  conspicuous 
object  seen  from  a  great  distance,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  impregnable  fortresses  in  India  Its  name  sig- 
nifies, "  Abode  of  Fortune."  The  road  leading 
to  the  summit  is  a  long  tunnel  bored  into  the  rock, 
to  which  light  and  air  are  communicated  through 
dormer  windows.  The  ascent  is  by  an  easy  incline, 
passing  gratings,  portcullises,  and  trap-doors,  that 
stand  as  checks  to  whoever  may  have  eluded  the 
sentries.  About  midway,  there  is  a  very  steep 
staircase  closed  in  by  a  horizontal  plate  of  iron 
pierced  with  holes.  At  the  outcome  of  this  road, 
a  handsome  Saracen  gate  opens  on  the  exterior 
rampart,  a  wall  some  sixteen  feet  thick  and  fifty- 
two  feet  high,  with  a  circumference  of  more  than 
two  and  a  half  miles.  The  interior  of  the  fortress 
is  divided  into  nine  parts,  by  as  many  concentric 
enclosures,  rising  one  above  another,  up  to  the  last, 
which  overlooks  all  the  rest.* 

At  the  base  of  the  fort  rises  the  town  in  which 
some  travellers  and  historians  believe  they  recog- 
nize the  famous  Tagara  of  the  Greeks.  Under 
the  name  of  Deogurh,  "  Dwelling  of  God,"  this 

Rousselet's  "  India  and  its  Native  Princes."  p.   75. 


Daoulatabad.  485 

town  was  long  the  capital  of  the  Deccan,  and 
passed  through  strange  vicissitudes.  In  1294  it 
was  occupied  by  the  emperor  Ala-u-din  ;  and  sub- 
sequently, Mohammed  Toghlak,  one  of  Ala's  suc- 
cessors, desiring,  on  account  of  its  impregnable 
fortress,  to  make  it  the  capital  of  the  Indian 
Empire,  compelled  the  inhabitants  of  Delhi,  sixty 
thousand  in  number,  to  remove  their  effects  to 
Daoulatabad.  Pipalghat,  a  neighboring  acclivity, 
was  the  work  of  a  noble  of  the  court  of  Aurung- 
zebe.  Two  columns  still  standing  on  the  road 
testify  to  this  fact,  and  that  the  sculptures  and 
decorations  used  everywhere,  even  for  the  nagging 
of  the  pathway,  were  all  taken  from  the  remains 
of  Hindu  temples  that  had  been  devastated  during 
the  wars.  This  desecration  of  things  made  sacred 
by  religious  worship,  and  so  opposed  to  oriental 
ideas  of  fitness,  was  in  the  case  alluded  to,  a 
special  ovation  to  the  fanatical  zeal  of  Aurungzebe, 
and  was  doubtless  very  pleasing  to  the  royal  bigot, 
whose  so-called  religious  zeal  seems  to  have  kept 
pace  with  the  violence  and  selfishness  of  his  life- 
long career.  The  plain  spreading  out  from  the 
road  is  nearly  covered  with  mausoleums,  very 
many  of  them  in  a  ruinous  condition,  with  their 


486  The  Mogul  Empire. 

domes  and  minarets  half  hidden  behind  the  luxu- 
riant tropic  growth,  and  the  over-hanging  branches 
of  time-honored  trees.  Beyond  the  plain,  is  the 
little  village  of  Rauzah,  "  Paradise,"  surrounded 
by  a  Moslem  cemetery  that  is  made  famous  as 
containing  the  tomb  of  Aurungzebe,  and  also  of 
that  of  the  noted  saint  Berham-u-din,  a  descendant 
of  the  prophet. 

The  province  of  Aurungabad  formed  part  of  the 
populous  native  state  of  Hyderabad,  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  territory  of  the  Nizam.  The 
famous  fortress  of  Golconda  is  perched  on  the  very 
summit  of  a  steep  and  rocky  hill.  This  fortress  is 
also  the  treasury  of  the  Nizam,  where  are  kept  the 
state  funds  and  jewels ;  and  it  may  be  that  from 
this  fact  has  arisen  the  custom  of  using  Golconda 
as  the  synonym  for  great  wealth.  The  diamond 
mines  of  Golconda  are  located  several  miles  east 
of  the  fortress.  The  city  of  Hyderabad,  capital 
of  the  Nizam,  is  three  hundred  miles  east  of 
Poonah,  and  contains  the  Jumma  Musjid,  a  superb 
Mohammedan  mosque,  built  of  white  stone,  and 
an  exact  copy  of  the  Mosque  at  Mecca.  It  is  alto- 
gether a  city  of  Moslems — population  and  pro- 


Ahmedabad.  487 

clivities,  prince  and  palace,  partaking  of  the  same 
character. 

The  town  of  Ahmedabad,  where  the  fugitive 
prince  Dara  concealed  himself  prior  to  his  capture 
and  execution  by  Aurungzebe,  was  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Sultans,  and  is  still  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  cities  of  India.  It  was  founded  in 
1412,  by  Sultan  Ahmed,  whose  name  it  bears,  on 
the  site  of  a  Hindu  town  of  some  notoriety. 
Ahmed,  having  in  his  conquests  sacked  several  im- 
portant Rajput  cities,  applied  the  beautiful  and 
costly  materials  to  the  early  building  of  the  superb 
mosques  and  palaces  with  which  this  city  abounds. 
His  architects  and  builders,  being  of  Hindu  origin, 
preserved  in  the  temples  of  their  adopted  faith,  the 
style  of  architecture  peculiar  to  the  country,  which 
is  quite  distinct  from  the  Saracen  order  introduced 
into  India  with  the  Tartar  dynasty. 

About  the  year  1570,  Ahmedabad  came  into  the 
possession  of  Akbar,  and  under  his  reign  and  that 
of  his  successors,  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most 
opulent  viceroyalties  of  the  empire.  Among  other 
personages  of  note,  the  beautiful  Nour  Mahal, 
wife  of  Jehanghir,  held  her  court  here  at  one 
time ;  and  the  emperor  himself  was  fond  of  seek- 


488  The  Mogul  Empire. 

ing  rest  and  relaxation  in  this  beautiful  city,  away 
from  state  cares.  In  1737,  it  was  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Baroda,  and  in  1818  it  was  given  up 
to  the  English,  who  have  since  held  it.  The 
superb  ramparts  of  the  cit}r  make  a  circuit  of 
nearly  eight  miles,  enclosing  unquestionably  the 
richest  city  in  India,  as  regards  mosques,  monu- 
ments and  mausoleums. 

The  mosques,  full  fifty  in  number,  are  all  built 
on  high  stone  terraces,  which  gives  them  a  pecul- 
iarly commanding  appearance,  amid  the  other 
architectural  adornments  of  the  city,  as  their 
gilded  domes  and  minarets  stand  out  boldly,  with 
the  azure  of  the  clear  Indian  sky  for  a  background. 

Among  the  mausoleums,  the  most  beautiful  is 
that  of  Shah  Allum,  two  miles  from  the  city. 
The  tomb  is  of  porphyry,  and  the  chamber  where 
it  rests  is  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl,  on  which 
the  light  falls  with  prismatic  radiance  from  a  deli- 
cate trellis-work  of  stone. 

The  great  scourge  of  Aurungzebe  was  the 
Mahratta  power,  rapidly  on  the  increase,  during 
the  last  half  of  his  reign.  As  Charlemagne  wept 
on  beholding  the  Norman  ships  on  the  Seine,  so 
Aurungzebe  foresaw  in  these  incursions  of  hordes 


Death  of  Aurungzele.  489 

he  could  neither  conciliate  nor  conquer,  the  coming 
ruin  of  his  race.  Repeatedly  he  opposed  their 
advances,  often  gaining  a  temporary  advantage, 
but  he  was  never  able  fully  to  annihilate  their 
power  —  every  attempt  to  do  so  seeming  like  fight- 
ing the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  where  a  new  cloud 
always  overwhelms  the  combatant,  as  he  success- 
fully puts  aside  the  first. 

This  source  of  annoyance,  together  with  the 
utter  failure  and  severe  losses  of  several  Afghan 
campaigns,  seems  greatly  to  have  soured  the 
temper  of  Aurungzebe,  and  led  to  sundry  offen- 
sive edicts,  and  oppressive  taxation  of  his  subjects 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  these  lengthy  military  cam- 
paigns. Murmurs  arose  on  all  sides,  his  troops 
clamored  for  pay,  and  in  the  midst  of  financial  em- 
barrassments, and  general  dissatisfaction,  the  weary 
and  troubled  monarch  saw  that  his  end  was  ap- 
proaching, and  that  his  busy,  anxious  life  had 
failed  to  secure  either  peace  for  himself  or  the  full 
measure  of  appreciation  he  had  desired  from  his 
countrymen.  Yet,  in  the  main,  success  had  at- 
tended his  expeditions  during  all  his  long  reign ; 
and  except  for  the  late  troubles  in  the  Deccan,  the 
empire  was  in  a  most  prosperous  condition,  while 


490  The  Mogul  Empire. 

few  monarchs  ever  devoted  their  whole  lives  more 
assiduously  to  what  they  deemed  the  interests  of 
their  people.  The  dying  emperor  declined  having 
his  sons  summoned  to  his  bedside  ;  but  he  wrote  a 
letter  to  each,  filled  with  wise  counsels,  and  he 
dictated  a  will  dividing  the  empire  between  them 
and  assigning  to  each  his  particular  domain.* 

Then  full  of  regrets  for  the  past,  and  fears  for 
the  future,  Aurungzebe  expired  at  Ahmednegur, 
February  21,  1707,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age, 
and  the  fiftieth  of  his  reign. 

*  Elphinstone's  India. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

THE   MAHRATTAS. 

ONE  of  the  most  formidable  powers  opposed  to 
each  of  the  successive  invaders  of  India, 
has  been  the  Mahratta.  Proud,  brave,  self-reliant, 
and  capable  of  enduring  all  manner  of  hardships, 
they  are  a  foe  always  formidable,  and  never  to  be 
turned  aside  by  bribery  or  threats.  Every  man 
among  them  seems  born  to  the  saddle,  and  their 
country  abounds  in  small,  strong,  sure-footed 
horses  just  suited  to  the  sort  of  guerilla  warfare 
they  carry  on.  Armed  with  lances,  their  mounted 
hordes  spread  like  locusts  over  the  country  during 
the  days  of  Moslem  supremacy,  making  rapid  ad- 
vances over  the  worst  roads,  impeded  by  no  obsta- 
cles, and  appearing  just  where  they  were  least 
expected,  they  committed  all  manner  of  depreda- 
491 


492  The    Mahrattas. 

tions  on  the  camps  and  outposts  of  the  invaders , 
and  then  loaded  with  plunder,  disappeared   as  sud- 
denly as  they  came.     General   Malcolm  refers  to 
these  harassing   guerillas,    against  whom    he   had 
constantly  to   contend ;    of    their  flocking  to  the 
Mahratta   standard   each    year,  immediately  after 
the  rains ;  and  the   whole  immense  army  setting 
forth  on  the   campaign,   with   no  other  provision 
than  the  food  and  forage  each  soldier  carried  at  his 
saddle-bow.     Of   course  they  had  to  levy  on  the 
country  for  subsistence  ;  but  there  was  no  lawless- 
ness in  their  plunder.     They  took  only  from  their 
armed  foes,  sparing  the  country  people  when  it 
was  practicable  ;  and  whatever  booty  they  captured 
was  carried  to  camp  and  divided  among  all.     Thus 
they  overran  the  richest  provinces ;  and  not  only 
was  their  army  constantly  receiving   recruits,  by 
the  accession  of  Hindu  adventurers  and  malecon- 
tents,  but  it  actually  derived  prestige  from  seem- 
ing defeats,   growing    all    the    time    stronger  and 
more    powerful.     The    Mahrattas  were  the    great 
scourge    of     Aurungzebe  ;     the    only    opponents 
against  whom  he  seemed  to   make  no  headway ; 
and    after    his    death,   they  continued    their    en- 
croachments, adding  occasionally  •  to  their  territo- 


THE  ROYAL  STANDARD  BEARER,  IN  THE  PROCESSION  OF 
THE  GCICOWAR,  AT  BARODA. 


Europeans  in  India.  495 

ries,  sometimes  suffering  loss,  but  seldom  was  any 
real  advantage  gained  over  them ;  while  the 
empire  daily  grew  weaker,  and  needed  only  some 
sudden  shock  to  cause  its  entire  dismemberment. 

Meanwhile,  the  possessions  and  influence  of  the 
English  in  India  had  been  constantly  increasing  ; 
but  the  French  also  had  appeared  on  the  arena, 
and  their  naval  forces,  under  the  command  of 
Labourdonnais,  had  for  the  time,  put  an  effectual 
check  on  the  operations  of  the  English.  When, 
however,  peace  had  been  restored  between  these 
powers,  they  each  opened  hostilities  on  various 
native  princes,  finding  always  some  frivolous  pre- 
text by  which  to  excuse  their  ambitious  scheming 
after  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Indies.  The 
first  English  fleet  had  been  dispatched  to  India  in 
1601 ;  and  this  was  followed  by  others,  which  in 
time  so  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  Dutch  as  well 
as  the  Portuguese  that  the  two  made  common 
cause  against  the  English,  and  frequently  attacked 
their  ships  on  the  high  seas.  This  led  the  Eng- 
lish Company  to  send  out  much  larger  ships, 
well  armed  with  heavy  cannon.  The  result  was 
almost  annihilation  to  the  Portuguese  fleet  that  in 
1605  attacked  the  English  off  Surat,  and  other 


496  The    Mahratta*. 

similar  engagements  following,  in  which  both  the 
Dutch  and  Portuguese  suffered  severely,  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  acquire  prestige  on  the  Indian  seas, 
not  only  in  the  eyes  of  these  European  nations, 
but  also  with  the  native  princes ;  that  led  the  lat- 
ter to  seek  the  alliance  of  the  English,  as  they  had 
formerly  that  of  the  Portuguese.  Then  followed 
the  embassy  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe  to  the  court  of 
Delhi,  in  the  reign  of  Akbar,  that  resulte'd  so  favor- 
ably for  British  commerce.  During  the  reigns  of 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.  not  much  progress  was 
made ;  and  the  rapidly-growing  power  of  the 
Dutch  was  gaining  the  ascendency,  until  the  active 
mind  of  Cromwell  saw  the  importance  of  giving 
to  Anglo-Indian  trade  the  prominence  it  merited. 
After  the  war  he  so  successfully  waged  with  Hol- 
land, Cromwell  dictated  his  own  terms  in  regard 
to  Indian  affairs;  and  in  April  1654,  a  treaty  was 
concluded,  in  which  "  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
the  British  India  Company  were  fully  and  honor- 
ably maintained."  The  marriage  of  Charles  II., 
with  the  Infanta  of  Portugal,  as  before  stated, 
gave  to  the  English,  in  1669,  full  possession  of  the 
island  of  Bombay,  out  of  which  has  grown  the 
immense  commerce  between  that  port  and  Eng- 


The  East  India   Company.  497 

land.  The  incapacity  and  unfaithfulness  of  their 
own  officers  in  India  greatly  retarded  the  growth 
at  this  period  of  the  Anglo-Indian  colonies.  The 
conduct  especially  of  Sir  John  Child,  one  of  the 
governors  of  Bombay,  during  the  reign  of  James 
II.,  became  so  violent  and  offensive,  that  the 
emperor  of  Delhi  openly  declared  war  against  the 
English,  when  the  timely  death  of  the  governor 
prevented  the  sacking  of  Bombay,  and  restored 
peace  between  the  English  and  their  Indian  allies. 
Then  followed  some  years  of  bitter  animosity  be- 
tween a  new  East  India  Company  and  the  old  one, 
until  in  1708  the  two  were  united,  and  a  new 
charter  was  obtained  which  gave  to  the  company 
the  right  of  holding  courts  of  session  and  appeal, 
and  also  a  mayor's  court,  in  each  of  the  three 
Presidencies  then  created  at  Madras,  Bombay  and 
Calcutta.  The  Court  of  Directors  was  better  con- 
stituted, and  new  life  and  vigor  began  to  appear  in 
every  department  of  the  service.  This  brings  us 
back  to  the  troublous  times  that  immediately  pre- 
ceded and  followed  the  death  of  Aurungzebe,  in 
connection  with  the  Mahrattas".  Maha  Rachtra, 
"  The  Great  Kingdom,"  is  the  name  that  for  more 

than  two  centuries  has  been  applied  to  the  country 
H.  I.— 32 


498  The    Mahrattas. 

of  the  Mahrattas,  a  vast  region  of  well-watered 
and  fertile  valleys,  intersected  by  mountain  ranges, 
and  now  divided  into  the  Provinces  of  Poonah, 
Candeish,  Nagpore,  Aurungabad,  and  Bejapore,  be- 
sides the  later  acquisitions  of  Gwalior,  Baroda,  and 
Indore.  We  find  no  certain  data  as  to  the  origin 
of  this  race ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  reign  of  Shah  Jehan  that  they  attracted 
particular  attention.  Beginning  then,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  noted  Sevaji,  to  strengthen  their 
position  in  the  Deccan,  they  ultimately  acquired 
sufficient  importance  not  only  to  change  the  Mos- 
lem destinies  of  India,  but  at  one  period  to  cause 
serious  trouble  to  the  Anglo-Indian  Government. 
And  it  seems  quite  probable  that,  but  for  the  in- 
crease of  British  power  in  the  country,  India 
would,  through  the  Mahrattas,  have  been  restored 
to  the  Hindus.  Even  in  our  own  day,  despite  the 
stringency  of  British  rule,  the  Mahrattas  have,  to 
a  great  extent,  preserved  their  ancient  institutions, 
their  elective  assembly,  and  the  independence  of 
their  communes  governed  by  the  mayors  of  then- 
villages. 

Sevaji   Bhousa,   the    founder   of    the   Mahratta 
dynasty  in   the  Deccan,  was  born  A.  D.  1627, 


Sevaji  Bhousa.  499 

when  scarcely  eighteen  years  of  age  was  admitted 
by  his  father  to  the  joint  management  of  the 
jaghire  of  Poonah.  This  afforded  him  opportu- 
nity of  indulging  the  wandering,  romantic  life  of 
which  he  seemed  so  fond  :  and  furthermore  of  col- 
lecting around  him  a  band  of  brave  and  trusty 
followers,  through  whose  help  he  secured  several 
hill  forts,  and  then  laid  violent  hands  on  the  reve- 
nues of  his  father's  fief.  His  next  step  was  revolt 
against  the  king  of  Bijapore,  the  capture  of  other 
forts,  and  the  conquest  of  the  whole  Northern  Con- 
con.  This  threw  into  his  hands  immense  treasure, 
and  enabled  him  with  largely  augmented  forces  to 
enter  the  imperial  territories,  take  the  town  of 
Juner,  and  carry  off  considerable  booty.  These 
atrocities  seem  to  have  been  overlooked  by  Aurung- 
zebe,  who  was  just  at  that  time  occupied  in  secur- 
ing the  crown  of  Delhi  for  himself,  and  putting 
his  father  and  brothers  out  of  the  way.  At  a 
later  period,  during  the  absence  of  the  emperor  in 
Cashmere,  Sevaji,  after  devastating  several  towns 
in  the  Deccan,  made  a  successful  raid  into  Surat, 
sacked  the  town,  assumed  the  title  of  Rajah,  and 
even  commenced  the  coining  of  money  with  his 
own  effigy.  These  high-handed  measures  brought 


500  The    Mahrattas. 

upon  Sevaji  the  chastisement  of  the  emperor,  to 
whom  the  bandit-chief  made  submission,  and  soon 
after  received  a  commission  in  the  Delhi  army, 
where  he  served  with  such  gallantry  as  to  elicit 
the  warmest  praises  of  Aurungzebe.  But  the 
next  year  found  Sevaji  again  in  the  field  on  his 
own  account,  as  invincible  a  foe  to  his  imperial 
master  as  he  had  been  useful  as  an  ally. 

Bijapore  and  Golconda  both  purchased  immunity 
at  the  hands  of  the  Mahratta  chief  by  the  pay- 
ment of  immense  sums  of  money,  thus  practica1'}' 
acknowledging  his  supremacy.  An  attempt  of 
Aurungzebe  to  seize  the  person  of  Sevaji,  proving 
unsuccessful,  afforded  to  the  chief  a  pretext  for 
open  war,  whereby  the  Mahrattas  recovered  pos- 
session of  several  important  hill  forts,  and  gained 
firmer  footing  in  Candeish  and  Surat. 

The  attention  of  Aurungzebe  was  at  this  period, 
1680,  diverted  by  the  failure  of  his  efforts  to  re- 
duce his  Rajput  subjects  to  submission,  by  the 
murmurs  of  the  Hindu  portion  of  his  empire  at 
the  offensive  edicts  whereby  all  but  Moslems  were 
debarred  from  offices  of  trust  under  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  jezzia  or  "  poll-tax  on  infidels  "  was 
revived;  and  more  than  all,  by  his  own  jealous 


G-olconda  Subdued.  501 

dread  of  "  coming  events,"  that  seemed  to  "  cast 
their  shadows  before."  This  combination  of 
troubles  not  only  emboldened  the  Mahrattas,  but 
equally  unfitted  the  emperor  to  cope  with  his  per- 
sistent adversaries ;  and  though  the  indomitable 
chief,  Sevaji,  had  died  of  a  sudden  illness  just  after 
one  of  his  raids  for  the  annexation  of  Mysore  to 
his  territories,  the  emperor  found  in  Sambaji,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Sevaji,  a  foe  equally  harass- 
ing and  far  more  unscrupulous  than  the  father. 
Sambaji,  with  his  hordes,  ravaged  Guzerat,  and 
though  often  unable  to  cope  with  the  large  forces 
of  the  emperor,  he  continued  by  repeated  sorties 
from  his  hill  forts,  to  cut  off  supplies,  plunder  the 
envoys,  and  effectually  to  embarrass  the  move- 
ments of  the  imperial  army.  Bijapore  was,  how- 
ever, taken  and  dismantled  by  Aurungzebe,  the 
subjugation  of  Golconda  followed,  and  soon  after, 
Sambaji  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  imperialists,  and 
was  beheaded  in  prison.  But  the  Mahrattas  were 
not  subdued.  Sambaji's  brother  assumed  com- 
mand, the  old  tactics  were  continued,  their  foes 
harassed  in  every  conceivable  way,  and  themselves 
rarely  exposed  to  danger.  Aurungzebe,  with  all 
his  indomitable  energy  and  perseverance,  began  to 


502  TJie    Mahrattas. 

be  discouraged  after  the  more  than  ten  years  lie 
had  spent  with  his  immense  army,  in  pursuing  this 
Hydra-headed  foe  from  point  to  point,  with  no 
perceptible  progress  made  in  subduing-  them. 
Finding  it  impossible  longer  to  maintain  his  large 
army  in  the  Deccan,  under  so  nian^  disadvantages, 
and  worn  out  with  fatigue,  he  ordered  a  retreat, 
and  deemed  himself  fortunate  in  arriving  at 
Ahmednagur,  with  the  loss  of  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  his  once  proud  and  invincible  army.* 

Here,  shortly  after,  occurred  the  death  of  this 
warrior  king,  the  least  happy  of  all  the  Tartan 
monarchs  —  a  man  whose  selfish  and  hollow  nat- 
ure did  more  to  undermine  his  own  happiness  and 
alienate  the  affections  of  his  people  than  even  acts 
of  cruelty  or  injustice  could  have  done. 

The  bequests  and  injunctions  of  Aurungzebe  to 
his  sons,  concerning  the  succession,  were  wholly 
unheeded  b}r  them,  Moazzim,  the  elder  causing 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  of  all  India,  at 
Cabul,  under  the  title  of  Bahadur  Shah,  and 
Azim,  the  second  son  taking  the  same  step  at 
Agra.  To  settle  the  disputed  point,  the  rivals 
took  the  field,  and  in  the  first  battle  Azim  and  his 

*  Duff's  History  of  the  Mahrattas. 


Mohammed  Shah.  505 

two  sons  were  all  killed,  leaving  Bahadur  Shah  in 
possession  of  the  field  and  the  crown.  This  being 
disputed  by  Prince  Cambakhsh,  the  younger 
brother,  he  was  attacked  near  Hyderabad,  his 
army  defeated,  and  himself  mortally  wounded. 
Behadar  Shah  having  thus  waded  to  the  throne  as 
his  father  had  done,  through  the  blood  of  all  his 
brothers,  lived  but  five  years  to  enjoy  the  dearly- 
purchased  sovereignty.  These  years  were  spent  in 
settling  the  existing  troubles  with  the  Rajputs; 
arranging  the  succession  that  was  being  disputed 
between  the  nephew  of  the  late  Mahratta  Rajah 
and  the  guardians  of  his  infant  son ;  and  lastly  in 
an  expedition  to  the  Punjaub  against  the  Seikhs, 
where  he  captured  several  forts  and  drove  back 
those  rude  warriors  to  their  own  territories.  Re- 
turning to  Lahore,  Bahader  Shah  died  after  a  brief 
illness,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age,  A.  D. 
1712.  After  his  death  followed  disputes  between 
his  four  sons  for  the  throne,  the  brief  reign  of  the 
eldest,  his  deposition  by  his  relative,  Tarokhsir, 
and  sundry  plottings  and  murders  by  sovereigns 
and  viziers,  with  several  brief,  unimportant  reigns 
marked  only  by  treachery  and  blood,  till  the  acces- 
sion of  Mohammed  Shah  in  1719. 


506  The    Mahrattas. 

Meanwhile  the  Mahrattas  continued  their  depre- 
dations, attacking  the  imperial  forces  at  various 
points,  invading  large  portions  of  the  country,  and 
pillaging  its  treasures.  Several  times  Delhi  was 
threatened  by  them  ;  and  nearly  the  whole  coun- 
try, from  the  Himalaj^as  to  the  Krishna,  felt  the 
influence  of  their  incursions,  which  would  have 
proved  still  more  destructive  but  for  the  constantly 
recurring  dissensions  among  themselves.  The 
English  taking  advantage  of  these  internal  troubles 
pushed  their  own  cause  with  such  skill  and  energy 
that  ultimately  nearly  the  whole  Mahratta  coun- 
try was  annexed  to  the  possessions  of  the  East 
India  Company,  the  sovereigns  of  the  several  prin- 
cipalities governing  under  "  English  protection," 
i.  e.,  English  control.  The  last  battle  in  which  the 
Mahrattas  figure  as  a  distinct  people,  was  that  of 
Paniput  against  the  Durani  Shah  of  Afghanistan, 
in  1761,  when  they  suffered  a  terrible  defeat,  and 
few  escaped  to  tell  the  tale  of  their  disasters ; 
after  which,  years  elapsed  before  the  Mahrattas 
were  again  in  a  position  to  exercise  any  influence 
in  Indian  affairs.  Most  of  the  nobles  and  military 
chiefs  went  into  exile,  finding  refuge  at  the  courts  of 
the  reigning  princes  of  Gwalior,  Baroda  and  Indore. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

THE  MOGUL  DYNASTY — FROM  MOHAMMED 
SHAH  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  DYNASTY. 

FEW  monarchs  ever  ascended  a  throne  under 
more  discouraging  circumstances  than  sur- 
rounded Mohammed  Shah  on  his  accession,  in  1719. 
The  oppressive  and  presumptuous  acts  of  the  vizier 
of  Farokhsir,  and  the  plottings  of  Hosen  Ali,  his 
military  Commander-in-chief,  together  with  the 
secret  murder  of  the  late  monarch,  had  so  estranged 
the  affections  of  the  people  from  the  ruling  powers, 
that  they  looked  with  suspicion  if  not  with  an- 
imosity, upon  the  new  occupant  of  the  throne. 
The  whole  country  was  in  disorder,  the  treasuiy 
empty,  and  many  of  the  nobles  in  revolt ;  while 
insurrections  seemed  the  rule,  and  a  quiet,  orderly 
administration  the  evident  exception.  Among 
other  disturbances  was  the  revolt  of  Asof  Jah, 

507 


508  The  Mogul  Dynasty. 

governor  of  Mai  war,  who  raised  a  large  army, 
marched  into  the  Deccan,  and  by  the  co-operation 
of  the  Mahrattas  established  himself  as  an  in- 
dependent chief.  To  put  down  this  daring  at- 
tempt, Hosen  Ali,  accompanied  by  the  emperor 
(whom  the  general  compelled  to  accompany  him), 
set  out  for  the  Deccan.  On  the  way  Mohammed, 
who  was  becoming  disgusted  with  the  persistent 
arrogance  of  his  general,  caused  him  to  be  assassin- 
ated ;  and  this  led  to  the  revolt  and  ultimate  ruin 
of  the  vizier,  Abdallah,  who  was  the  brother  of 
Hosen  Ali,  the  general,  and  to  the  recall  and 
appointment  of  Asof  Jah  to  the  viziership.  A 
single  year's  service  resulted  in  the  resignation  of 
the  minister,  and  his  return  to  the  Deccan,  where 
he  again  took  up  arms  against  the  emperor.  No 
decisive  action  was  taken,  however,  nor  any  im- 
portant advantage  gained  on  either  side.  In  truth, 
there  seems  little  worthy  of  record  in  the  history 
of  the  times,  till  the  year  1738,  when  Nadir  Shah, 
the  ambitious  king  of  Persia,  having  already  con- 
quered a  large  portion  of  the  Afghan  territories, 
crossed  the  Indus,  confident  that  an  easy  conquest 
and  a  rich  booty  awaited  him  in  India.  Rousing 
himself  from  the  effeminate  frivolity  that  had 


Nadir  Shah.  509 

occupied  the  greater  portion  of  his  reign,  Moham- 
med went  forth  at  the  head  of  such  troops  as  could 
be  hastily  summoned  to  meet  the  invader.     A  de- 
cisive battle  took  place  at  Carnal,  resulting  in  the 
defeat  of  Mohammed  and  his  submission  to  the 
Persian  monarch.     Nadir  Shah  permitted  the  em- 
peror to   remain  unguarded  in  his  own  quarters, 
till  they  set  out  for  Delhi,  where  the  two  monarchs 
resided  under  the  same  roof.     The  sojourn  of  Nadir 
Shah  in   the  Indian   capital  was   only  fifty-three 
days  ;  but  though  so  brief,  in  it  was  recorded  such 
a  story  of  rapacity  and  bloodshed  as  long  outlived 
the    perpetrators   of    those    atrocities.     An   indis- 
criminate  massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city 
lasted  for  a  whole  day,  and  the  number  of  lives 
sacrificed   has   been   variously  estimated   at  from 
thirty  thousand  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 
Then  followed  a  general  plunder  of   the   capital 
from   the    king's   treasury  down   to   the    meanest 
dwelling.     The  spoils  appropriated  by  the  Persian 
monarch,  as   payment   for   this   most   unwelcome 
visit,   were  about  forty-five  millions  of  dollars  in 
coin,  more  than  that  amount  in  jewels,  and  gold 
and  silver  plate  ;  and  whole  droves  of  the  finest 
horses,  elephants  and  camels  the  country  afforded, 


510  The  Mogul   Dynasty. 

besides  hundreds  of  artisans  in  gold  and  silver, 
who  were  carried  captive  to  the  Persian  capital. 
Before  leaving  Delhi,  Nadir  Shah  seated  Moham- 
med on  his  throne,  and  with  his  own  hands  re- 
placed the  regal  diadem  on  his  brow,  at  the  same 
time  enjoining  on  the  chiefs  and  nobles,  the  strict- 
est obedience  to  the  reinstated  emperor.  The 
prospect  was  certainly  desperate  enough  —  an  ex- 
hausted treasury,  devastated  cities,  and  his  people 
without  the  means  of  living  —  these  were  the 
inheritance  upon  which  the  restored  monarch  had 
entered.  More  troubles  in  the  Carnatic,  the  in- 
terference of  the  Nizam,  then  of  the  French 
commandant  of  Pondicherry,  and  the  predatory 
incursions  of  Chanda  Sahib,  the  deposed  nabob  of 
the  Carnatic,  were  the  events  of  the  next  eight 
years,  when  in  1748,  the  death  of  the  Nizam  at 
the  age  of  one  hundred  years,  gave  rise  to  conten- 
tions as  to  the  succession,  in  which  both  the  French 
and  English  took  such  part  as  might  best  subserve 
their  own  interests. 

The  only  events  of  historic  importance  occurring 
at  this  period,  were  the  rise  of  the  Rohillas,  an 
Afghan  tribe  inhabiting  a  mountain  region  near 
Oudh,  and  the  invasion  of  India  by  the  Afghan 


The  Rohillas.  511 

chief,  Ahmed  Shah  Durani.  The  former  was 
repelled  by  the  emperor  in  person ;  the  latter,  by 
prince  Ahmed,  his  son,  with  heavy  loss.  These 
events  had  scarcely  transpired  when  by  the  sudden 
death  of  his  father,  the  young  prince  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  under  the  title  of  Ahmed  Shah.  His 
father  had  reigned  just  twenty-nine  years,  and  ex- 
pired 1748,  leaving  his  son  in  undisputed  possession 
of  a  devastated  empire  and  a  discontented  people. 

To  repel  a  fresh  incursion  of  the  Rohillas,  the 
new  monarch  dispatched  his  vizier,  Safder  Jang, 
who,  proving  unequal  to  the  task,  was  compelled 
to  call  in  the  aid  of  Hoikar  and  Scindia,  two 
Mahratta  chiefs  whose  names,  then  almost  un- 
known, became  afterwards  so  famous  in  Indian 
warfare.  These  invincible  chieftains  not  only 
obtained  a  decisive  advantage  over  the  Rohillas, 
but  drove  them  back  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas, 
where  they  were  glad  to  sue  for  peace  on  any 
terms.* 

The  next  foe  to  be  met,  was  the  Afghan  king, 
who  after  inarching  into  the  Punjaub,  and  seizing 
upon  Lahore,  demanded  of  the  emperor  the  cession 
of  this  entire  region,  to  be  held  independently  of 

*Elphinstone's  India. 


512  The  Mogul   Dynasty. 

the  Indian  Empire ;  and  Ahmed,  conscious  of  his 
ability  to  cope  with  his  foe,  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  this  unjust  claim. 

Dissensions  between  the  sovereign  and  his  vizier 
followed,  culminating  in  the  deposition  of  Ahmed, 
violence  to  the  royal  person,  and  the  placing  of  a 
new  emperor  on  the  throne,  under  the  title  of 
Alam  Ghir  II.  A.  D.  1754.  The  violent  conduct 
of  the  vizier,  Ghazi-u-din,  toward  the  new  sover- 
eign, and  his  evident  determination  to  govern 
according  to  his  own  pleasure,  while  his  royal 
master  looked  on  approvingly,  rendered  the  office 
of  the  emperor  a  mere  sinecure,  destitute  of  power 
over  himself  and  his  subjects.  This  atrocity  of 
Ghazi-u-din,  and  his  extreme  severity  toward  the 
people  led  to  open  mutiny  ;  and  his  violation  of 
the  recent  treaty  with  the  Afghan  king,  brought 
him  again  across  the  Indus,  and  resulted  in  the 
plunder  of  Delhi,  and  the  indiscriminate  slaugh- 
ter of  the  inhabitants.  The  devastated  capital, 
thus  robbed  of  what  had  escaped  the  rapacity  of 
the  Persians,  was  left  by  the  Afghan  king  in  the 
hands  of  a  Rohilla  chief,  while  the  conqueror  re- 
turned to  his  own  country.  Ghazi-u-din  now 
called  in  the  aid  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  by  their 


H.  I.— 33 


Cf-hazi-u-din.  515 

help,  he  shortly  took  violent  possession  of  Delhi, 
assassinated  the  unfortunate  Alamghir,  and  ulti- 
mately wrested  from  the  Afghans  the  whole  of  the 
country  ceded  to  them  by  Ahmed  Shah.  This 
brought  the  irate  Durani  once  more  across  the 
Indus,  and  marching  with  a  formidable  army, 
southward  he  met  the  Mahratta  forces  on  the 
plains  of  Paniput,  near  the  Jumna,  where  in  1761, 
occurred  that  last  battle,  before  mentioned,  in 
which  the  Mahrattas  figured  as  a  distinct  peo- 
ple. The  invading  army  having  thus  effect- 
ually destroyed  the  last  remnants  of  the  Tartar 
Empire  of  India,  retired  beyond  the  Indus,  leaving 
the  desolated  country  to  its  fate.  The  fugitive 
Shah  Alum,  the  heir  to  the  throne  of  Delhi,  sub- 
sequently obtained  possession  of  the  capital  of  his 
ancestors  ;  but  having  no  power  to  retain  it  he  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  Rohilla  chief,  who  after  put- 
ting out  his  eyes,  gave  him  over  to  Scindia,  the 
latter  retaining  him  in  close  confinement  at  Delhi, 
till  that  city  was  taken  by  the  British  forces,  in 
1803.  Shah  Alum  and  his  son,  Akbar  Shah  both 
died  pensioners  on  the  bounty  of  the  East  India 
Company ;  and  with  these  princes  ended  the  race 
of  the  Tartar  kings  of  India.* 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


516  The  Mogul  Dynasty. 

Meanwhile  the  growth  of  Anglo-Indian  power 
had  been  steady  and  sure  :  the  dissensions  that  so 
completely  annihilated  the  Tartar  Empire,  turning 
every  way  to  the  advantage  of  the  British.  The 
rapid  decay  of  Portuguese  and  Dutch  power  in 
India,  had  left  the  French  the  chief  rivals  of  the 
English  on  the  eastern  waters  ;  and  a  cordial  hatred 
existed  between  these  nations.  The  first  expedi- 
tion against  Pondicherry  having  failed  through  the 
superior  valor  and  skill  of  the  French  admiral, 
Labourdonnais,  .who,  in  1747  had  in  turn  attacked 
and  reduced  the  English  settlement  of  Madras,  the 
British  made  a  second  attempt  against  Pondicherry 
under  the  admiral,  Boscawen.  This  also  proved  a 
failure  ;  but  the  reputation  of  British  arms  was 
more  than  vindicated  by  the  brilliant  victories 
achieved  at  Arcot  in  1751,  by  Lieutenant  (after- 
wards Lord)  Clive,  whose  name  just  then,  be- 
gan to  appear  in  the  annals  of  Anglo-Indian 
history.  Not  only  did  Clive  obtain  possession  of 
the  town  and  citadel,  but  with  only  two  hundred 
English  and  three  hundred  Seapoys,  he  effectually 
resisted  a  siege  of  nearly  two  months,  against  nine 
thousand  native,  and  nearly  two  hundred  French 
troops,  and  finally  pursued  the  retreating  foe,  and 


Lord    Olive.  517 

dispersed  them  with  heavy  loss.     This  terminated 
hostilities  between  the  French  and  English  for  a 
short  time  ;  and  after    some  other  less  important 
passages  of  arms,  peace  having  in  the  meantime 
been   declared   between    these   hostile    powers    in 
Europe,    an    amicable    arrangement   was   entered 
into,  whereby  the  French  and  English  East  India 
Companies  should  thereafter  act  in  concert.     The 
French  meanwhile,  had  been  losing  favor  with  the' 
native  princes,  while  the   latter  were  becoming  in- 
creasingly friendly  to  the  British.     Suraj-al-Daoulah 
who  had  succeeded  his  uncle,  Alverdi  Khan,  as 
viceroy    of    Bengal,    was   however,   an  exception, 
seeming  to  cherish  for  these  foreigners  who  had 
found  shelter  in  his  domain,  a  most  cordial  hatred, 
and  to  watch  for  opportunities  to  injure  and  annoy 
them.     It  was  during  the  administration  of   the 
uncle,  that  the  emperor   Mohammed  Shah  had,  in 
gratitude  for  the  valuable  services  of  the  medical 
officer  attached  to  the   English   embassy,  conceded 
all  they  desired  in  regard  to  Calcutta,  giving  them 
many   privileges    of    trade    not    before    enjoyed, 
though  quite  in   opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the 
viceroy,  who  was  likewise  vizier  to  the  emperor. 
This  enmity  of  Alverdi  seems  to  have  been  trans- 


518  The  Mogul  Dynasty, 

mitted,  with  interest,  to  his  successors  who,   not 

satisfied   with   the    accumulated    treasures  of   his 

uncle,  determined  to  seize  on  the  British  factory  at 

Calcutta,    which,    from    the    extensive    commerce 

carried   on,   he    supposed   to   be   of   great   value. 

Taking  advantage  of  their  defenceless   condition, 

Suraj  marched  suddenly  upon  the  little  band  who 

garrisoned  the  Britisli  factory,   and  despite  their 

gallant  resistance,  he  took  possession  of  the  place, 

and  gave  up  the  town  to  the  pillage  of  his  lawless 

troops.     All  the  English  residents  who  could  do  so 

took  refuge  in  the  few  English   ships  anchored  in 

the  harbor  ;  but  one  hundred  and  forty-six,  under 

the  command  of  Mr.  Holwell,  fell  into  the  hands  of 

the  viceroy,  who  ordered  them  to  be  confined  for 

the  night,  in  a  small  close  room,  known  as  the 

"Black  Hole."     It  was  the  20th  of  June,  (1756), 

the  weather  was  intensely  hot,  the   cell  miserably 

ventilated,  and  only  eighteen  feet  square,  and  the 

sufferings    of    the     unfortunate    victims    beggars 

description.     Many  fell  fainting  to  the  ground  and 

were  trampled  to  death,  some   fought  desperately 

to  reach  the  small  hole  that  served  as  a  window, 

and  expired  in  raving   madness  while   struggling 

bravely  for  life ;  and  of  the  whole   number  thrust 


The  "Black   Hole"  519 

into  that  den  of  despair,  only  twenty-six  remained 
alive.  To  avenge  their  terrible  tragedy,  Clive, 
with  such  forces  as  could  be  spared  from  Madras, 
was  despatched  to  Calcutta,  and  not  only  re- 
captured the  city,  but  compelled  the  viceroy  to 
sue  for  peace  ;  and  the  treacherous  Suraj,  proving 
a  dangerous  foe,  was  shortly  after  deposed  by 
English  authority.  On  the  22nd  of  June,  1757, 
the  battle  of  Plassy  was  fought,  which  ended  not 
only  in  a  great  victory  to  the  English,  but  the 
death  of  the  late  viceroy,  Suraj,  who,  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  son  of  Mir  Jaffier,  was  assassin- 
ated by  his  order.  War  having  again  been  de- 
clared between  England  and  France,  Major  Coote 
was  sent  to  expel  the  French  from  Behar,  which 
was  promptly  effected,  and  an  amicable  treaty 
arranged  with  the  native  governor.  An  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  reduce  Trichinopoly,  and  other 
aggressive  measures,  were  undertaken  by  the 
French  in  retaliation ;  but  no  advantage  was 
gained  until  the  capture  of  Fort  St.  David  on 
the  Carnatic  coast,  June  1,  1758,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  French  power  in  the  Deccan  at  about  the 
same  time.  The  severity  of  the  French  general, 
Lally,  had  alienated  not  only  the  native  nobles 


520  The  Mogul  Dynasty. 

but  even  his  own  troops ;  and  the  former  were 
easily  diverted  from  their  allegiance,  whilst  the 
latter  were  discouraged  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties  ;  so  that  his  siege  of  Tanjore  seemed  fruit- 
less mainly  from  want  of  co-operation.  The  siege 
of  Madras  failed  also,  and  shortly  afterwards  Lally 
suffered  a  total  defeat  before  Wandiwash,  with 
heavy  losses  of  artillery  and  baggage ;  while  the 
English  arms,  especially  under  Generals  Coote, 
Clive,  and  Forde,  carried  victory  and  renown 
everywhere  in  their  course.  Arcot,  Timery,  Devi- 
cotah,  Valdore,  Cafical,  Cillambaram,  Trincomalee, 
Cuddalore,  Pennacoil  and  Alamparva  all  were  sur- 
rendered to  the  English  ;  and  Vizigapatam  having 
been  captured  from  the  French  by  Rajah  Amun- 
deraz,  was  by  him  made  over  to  the  Madras 
Government,  in  return  for  aid  rendered  him  in 
subjugating  the  Circars.  Forde's  victory  at  Masul- 
ipatam,  in  April  1759,  was  a  most  brilliant  affair, 
and  the  results  great  and  lasting  in  establishing 
the  prestige  of  British  arms  over  those  of  the 
French,  and  awakening  the  confidence  of  the 
native  princes.  Soon  after,  the  governor  of  Ben- 
gal was  aided  by  Clive,  in  retaining  possession  of 
his  province,  and  in  return  made  his  benefactor  an 


Decadence   of  French   Powc*-.  521 

Omra  of  the  empire,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  jag- 
hire  near  Calcutta,  worth  $150,000  a  year.* 

In  the  Madras   Presidency,  the  star  of  the  Eng- 
lish   was    still   in    the    ascendency.     The    French 
after  various    defeats  fell  back  upon  Pondicherry, 
to  find  themselves  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the 
English ;    and    after   sustaining   a   siege  of   eight 
months,  the  fort  and  town  capitulated.     From  this 
period   the    decay    of    Franco-Indian    power   was 
steady  and   sure ;  though   a  feeble  existence  was 
maintained  for  about  a  score  of  years  longer.     In 
1779,  all   their  settlements  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English,  and  as  military  posts,  they  were  com- 
pletely dismantled.     Bussy  was  killed  in  battle ; 
Lally,  on  his  return  to  Europe,  was  tried  for  treason 
and    executed ;    and   though    subsequently,    some 
spasmodic  attempts  have  been  made  to  revive  their 
oriental  trade,  the  French  as  a  nation  have  long 
ceased  to  take  any  important  part  in  Indian  affairs. 
But  at  the  taking  of  Pondicherry  in  1760,  France 
lost  her  prestige  in   India,  and  this  was  really  the 
beginning  of  the  end. 

Though  peace  was  at  this  time  existing  between 
England  and  Holland,  the  Dutch  became  so  jealous 

*  Malcolm's  "Indian  Mutiny.'' 


522  The  Mogul  Dynasty. 

of  the  growth  of  British  power  and  territory  in 
India,  that  they  sent  an  expedition  from  Batavia, 
consisting  of  seven  ships,  manned  by  seven  hun- 
dred Europeans  and  eight  hundred  Malays.  The 
ships  entered  the  Hooghly  and  landed  their  forces 
near  Calcutta,  intending  to  march  to  their  settle- 
ment at  Chinsura.  General  Forde,  acting  under 
the  orders  of  the  English  governor,  so  effectually 
interposed  to  prevent  their  progress,  that  of  the 
entire  number,  only  fourteen  men  reached  their 
destination,  all  the  others  being  killed  or  captured. 
The  ships  surrendered,  and  the  Dutch  were  re- 
quired to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  whole  affair,  or 
be  driven  from  the  Province  of  Bengal.  They 
chose  the  former,  and  seemingly  convinced  of  their 
inability  to  cope  with  the  stronger  power,  they 
retired  from  the  field  as  the  Portuguese  and  French 
had  done,  leaving  the  victorious  Britons  masters  ot 
the  course. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

THE    ENGLISH     POWER  —  LORDS     OLIVE    AND 
HASTINGS. 

THE  prospect  of  political  calm  that  followed 
the  events  of  the  last  chapter,  enabled  Gen- 
eral Clive  once  more  to  revisit  his  native  land  for 
the  purpose  of  recruiting  his  impaired  health. 
This  step  left  Colonel  Calliand  acting  commander- 
in-chief ;  and  Mr.  Vansittart  was  appointed  by  the 
"  Court  of  Directors  "  as  the  head  of  the  execu- 
tive during  Clive's  absence.  This  appointment 
excited  much  dissension  in  the  Calcutta  Council, 
as  contrary  to  usage  ;  and  Mr.  Vansittart's  conduct, 
in  arranging  his  plans  with  a  secret  committee, 
without  consulting  the  "  Board,"  naturally  tended 
to  the  increase  of  unfriendly  feeling.  The  treas- 
ury too,  was  empty,  Mir  Jaffier,  the  viceroy  of 

523 


524  The  English  Power. 

Bengal  was  in  arrears  with  his  officers,  and  the 
troops  at  Patna  were  clamoring  for  pay.  Amidst 
these  complicated  disputes  and  difficulties,  arising 
out  of  the  absence  of  Clive,  the  viceroy,  Jaffier 
was  deposed  by  Vansittart,  arid  Cassim  Ali  Khan, 
Jafficer's  son-in-law,  appointed  in  his  stead.  The  new 
viceroy,  Cassim,  proved  himself  equally  treacher- 
ous and  grasping ;  and  to  secure  his  own  ends,  he 
by  false  accusations,  compassed  the  death  of  Rain- 
narain,  the  Hindu  governor  of  Bezar,  though  this 
governor  had  always  been  a  faithful  ally  of  the 
English,  and  had  committed  no  fault  but  that  of 
having  a  full  treasury,  that  Cassim  desired  to  ap- 
propriate to  his  own  use.  Sundry  outbreaks 
occurred  between  the  respective  parties  of  the  old 
and  new  viceroys,  Vansittart's  administration  be- 
coming daily  less  popular,  while  it  was  generally 
believed  that  his  partiality  for  Cassim  was  the 
effect  of  corruption.  Mr.  Ellis,  one  of  Vansittart's 
most  determined  opposers,  was  sent  as  resident  to 
Patna  where  he  paid  no  deference  to  Mir  Cassim, 
and  arrested  his  officers  for  interfering  with  the 
transit  of  goods ;  and  Cassim,  in  retaliation,  abol- 
ished all  transit  duties  in  his  domain,  thus  placing 
native  dealers  on  an  equal  footing  with  Europeans. 


ZEMINDARS    AND    JAT    PEASANTS. 


Vansittart,  527 

These  dissensions  culminated  in  several  skirmishes, 
and  ultimately  in  more  important  engagements  : 
the  first,  with  the  van  of  the  viceroy's  army  near 
Moorshedabad,  on  the  2nd  of  July,  1763,  with  the 
view  on  the  part  of  the  Calcutta  council,  of  re- 
moving Cassim,  and  restoring  Mir  Jaffier  to  his 
old  position.  This  action  resulted  unfavorably  for 
Cassim  who  was  again  attacked  on  the  2nd  of 
August,  and  totally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  all 
his  baggage  and  guns,  besides  a  hundred  and  fifty 
boats  loaded  with  provisions.  Falling  back  aftet 
each  defeat,  Cagsim  was  pursued  by  the  victorious 
army ;  and  on  the  5th  of  September  a  sudden 
assault  was  made  compelling  him  to  retreat  within 
his  capital,  Mongheer,  which  in  a  few  days  sur- 
rendered to  the  English,  with  a  garrison  of  two 
thousand  men.  On  the  6th  of  November,  Patna 
fell  by  storm,  and  Mir  Cassim  fled  to  Oudh,  and 
sought  the  protection  of  the  nabob.  A  mutinous 
spirit  began  to  show  itself  among  the  native  troops 
in  the  English  service;  and  prompt,  even  severe 
discipline  had  to  be  used  by  the  English  higher 
officers,  in  order  to  check  this  spirit  of  insubordi- 
nation that  seemed  rapidly  on  the  increase.  One 
entire  battalion  of  Seapoys  went  over  to  the 


528  The  English  Power. 

Indian  army,  taking  with  them  their  arms  and 
accoutrements.  These  were  pursued  and  taken, 
and  twenty-four  of  the  chief  offenders  condemned 
to  be  blown  from  cannon  mouths  —  a  sentence  ex- 
ecuted under  protest  from  the  native  soldiers,  and 
not  without  considerable  intimidation  on  their 
part.  The  firmness  of  Major  Hector  Munro  was 
especially  successful  in  reducing  the  mutinous 
troops  to  submission,  and  in  quelling  the  wide- 
spread spirit  of  disaffection,  as  well  as  in  destroy- 
ing the  forces  of  the  nabob  of  Oudh,  who  had 
aided  and  abetted  the  deserters,  and  with  whom 
the  treacherous  Cassim  found  refuge  after  his  ear- 
lier defeats. 

It  was  at  this  period,  that  the  emperor,  Shah 
Alum,  during  his  brief  season  of  power,  made 
overtures  to  the  English,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
of  alliance  with  them,  giving  to  the  East  India 
Company  full  control  of  the  province  of  Bengal, 
and  other  immunities  of  commerce.  On  the  death 
of  Mir  Jaffier,  that  occurred  shortly  after  his  rein- 
statement as  viceroy,  the  council  appointed  his 
second  son  to  succeed  him,  January  1765. 

The  stock-holders  in  the  British  East  India 
Company  had  thus  far  been  allowed  no  voice  in 


The  East  India  Company  529 

the  control  of  Indian  affairs  ;  and  they  were  be- 
ginning to  feel  restive  under  the  evident  insubordi- 
nation that   prevailed   among   all   ranks  of   their 
employees  so  far  removed  from  their  observation 
and  direction.     They  consequently  signed   a  peti- 
tion to  the  directors,  requesting  the  appointment 
of  the  newly  created  peer,  Lord  Clive,  to  the  post 
of  chief-director,  as  one  most  likely  to  compass  the 
difficulties  arising  out  of  a   mutinous  army  and  a 
destitute  treasury.     The  request  was  acceeded  to, 
and  Lord  Clive  was  appointed,  though  after  con- 
siderable show  of  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
other  directors  with  whom    he  had  not  been  on 
good  terms,  previous   to   his   leaving   India.     He 
accepted  now,  the  position  offered,  on  condition  of 
being  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  pres- 
ident of  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  governor  of 
Bengal ;    and  "  being  empowered  to  act  without 
consulting  the  council,  or  being  subject  to  its  con- 
trol."    Invested  with   this   supreme  power,   Lord 
Clive  once  more  sailed  for  India.     The  first  abuses 
the  new  governor  attempted  to  deal  with,  were  the 
private  trade  carried  on  by  officials  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  their  habit  of  extorting  presents  from 

native  princes  and  rulers,  in  return  for  offices  and 
H.  I.— 34 


530  The  English  Power. 

oher  favors.  Lord  Clive  compelled  all  the  civil 
and  military  servants  of  the  company  to  sign  a 
document,  whereby  they  pledged  themselves  not 
to  receive,  under  any  pretext  whatever,  presents 
from  native  princes  or  rulers.  With  the  free  trade 
problem  he  found  it  more  difficult  to  cope,  as  it 
had  been  carried  on  from  the  first,  to  piece  out  in- 
sufficient salaries.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  lie 
created  a  monopoly  in  salt,  betel-nut  and  tobacco, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  higher  officers,  to  be  appor- 
tioned according  to  their  respective  grades.  His 
defence  of  this  questionable  proceeding  was,  that 
the  company  was  itself  a  monopoly,  and  that  the 
servants  were  merely  adopting  the  practise  of  their 
superiors.  The  extra  allowance  to  officers  engaged 
in  field  service,  known  as  "  batta,"  was  ordered  to 
cease  from  January,  1766,  except  where  specially 
ordered  by  the  chief  director.  This  created  great 
displeasure  among  the  higher  officers,  who  threat- 
ened unless  their  batta  was  restored  by  a  certain 
day,  to  throw  up  their  commissions  simultane- 
ously ;  whereupon  Clive  ordered  fresh  officers 
from  Calcutta  and  Madras,  and  had  the  chief  con- 
spirators arrested.  Many  were  tried  and  dismissed 
the  service,  among  them,  General  Sir  R.  Fletcher, 


Hyder  All.  531 

who  was,  however,  afterwards  reinstated  by  means 
of   family  influence,  and    subsequently  appointed 
commander    of    the    forces    at    Madras.      At    the 
end  of  January,   1767,   Lord   Clive   resigned    and 
returned   to   England,  in    consequence   of    failing 
health ;    and    a    "  select    committee,"    with    Mr. 
Verelst  at  the   head   was  placed  in  charge,   with 
a  revenue  that  was  scarcely  meeting  the  expenses 
of  the  government.     The  capture  of  Ponclicherry 
had  given  the  English  the  control  of  the  Carnatic; 
but  this  was  disputed   by  Nizam  Ali,  who   having 
assassinated  his  brother,  Salabat  Jing,  Subahdah  of 
the   Deccan   in   order   to   secure   for   himself  the 
ascendenc3r,   now  invaded   and  laid   the   country 
desolate ;    while  he  resisted   all   attempts  of   the 
English  to  take   possession  of  the   country,  until 
they  agreed  to  pay  him  an  annual  tribute,  and  to 
assist  him  with  troops  whenever  it  should  be  nec- 
essary.    This  arrangement  however,  brought  them 
into  difficulties  with  Hyder  Ali,  the  governor  of 
Mysore,  who,  rising  from  a  subordinate  position  to 
the  command  of  the  army,  had,  by  various  expedi- 
ents gained  possession  of  the  domain  of  the  Nairs 
of   Malabar,    arid   other   small   tracts  of   land    in 
Southern    India,  of   which   he  had  constituted  a 


532  The  English  Power. 

diminutive  kingdom  for  himself.  Of  this,  the 
rapacious  Nizam  wished  to  gain  the  control,  and 
the  English,  as  agreed  in  the  recent  treaty,  joined 
him  in  the  invasion  of  Hyder's  territory.  But  the 
treacherous  Nizam  suddenly  broke  faith  with  his 
English  allies,  made  peace  with  Hyder,  and  offered 
to  deliver  into  his  hands  the  whole  body  of  Eng- 
lish troops.  Ultimately,  after  several  skirmishes, 
Colonel  Wood  commanding  the  English  forces,  was 
drawn,  by  a  ruse  of  Hyder,  from  Madras,  when 
Tippoo  Sahib,  Hyder's  son,  by  forced  marches, 
appeared  suddenly  before  the  city,  at  the  head  of 
six  thousand  horse,  compelling  the  English  to  sue 
for  peace  on  the  conqueror's  own  terms.  Next 
arose  troubles  between  the  Subahdar  of  Oudh  and 
the  Rohillas,  the  English  furnishing  troops  to  the 
former,  in  compliance  with  the  treaty  entered  into 
by  Warren  Hastings,  then  governor  of  India ;  and 
the  result,  in  which  the  English  had  a  full  share  of 
the  shame,  was  not  only  a  terrible  defeat  of  the 
innocent  and  peaceable  Rohillas,  but  the  annexa- 
tion of  their  country  to  Oudh.  In  the  meantime, 
October,  1774,  a  new  constitution  had  been  framed 
by  the  British  parliament,  for  the  Indian  provinces, 
and  three  commissioners  from  England  were  sent 


THE   GOLDEN    KIOSK,   IN    THE   VALLEY   OF   AMBIR.  533 


Hastings  Resigns.  535 

out  to  act  in  concert  with  the  governor  (Hastings), 
in  enforcing  its  adoption.  Disagreements  in  re- 
gard to  policy,  arose  also,  between  the  home  gov- 
ernment and  the  Indian  colonies,  resulting  in 
jealousy  and  confusion.  It  was  at  this  period  that 
the  impeachment  of  Hastings  occurred,  the  charges 
being  peculation  and  bribery,  based  upon  the  reve- 
lations of  Rajah  Nuncomar,  to  the  effect  that  his 
son  Goordas,  and  Munny  Begum,  had  both  paid  the 
governor  fur  the  offices  they  held.  Nuncomar  was, 
at  the  instance  of  certain  influential  parties,  cited 
first  for  conspiracy  and  then  for  perjury,  tried 
before  a  jury  consisting  altogether  of  Englishmen, 
convicted  and  hanged.  Perjury  was  not  a  capital 
offence,  nor  was  there  sufficient  proof  of  the  guilt 
of  the  Rajah,  to  have  convinced  an  unprejudiced 
jury ;  and  as  the  circumstances  have  come  down 
to  us,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  law  was 
shamefully  perverted  in  order  to  get  rid  of  a 
troublesome  personage.  Governor  Hastings  next 
sent  in  his  resignation,  which  was  accepted,  and 
when  his  successor  had  been  appointed,  Hastings 
saw  fit,  for  some  reason  to  reverse  his  own  decision, 
and  insisted  on  retaining  his  office  of  governor. 
On  an  appeal  being  made  to  the  courts  of  law, 


536  The  English  Power. 

they  pronounced  in  his  favor.  Whilst  this  most 
disgraceful  policy,  attended  by  constant  bickerings 
and  recriminations  on  both  sides,  was  being  enacted 
in  the  civil  department,  military  affairs  were  not 
progressing  more  favorably.  Colonel  Leslie's  nego- 
tiations with  diiferent  native  chiefs,  and  his  hesita- 
tion in  acting  with  the  Bombay  army,  caused  him 
to  be  suspected  of  dishonorable  intentions,  and  led 
to  his  being  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Colonel  Goddard.  The  Mahrattas  were  still  giving 
trouble  by  their  incursions  and  depredations ;  but 
in  January,  1770,  Colonel  Goddard  surprised  both 
Scindia  and  Holkar  in  their  camps,  and  dispersed 
them  with  heavy  loss  on  their  side  ;  and  ver}r  soon 
after,  he  gained  possession  of  Dubhoy  and  Ahmed 
abad  ;  and  the  Mahrattas  were  driven  back  into 
their  own  country.  The  fort  of  Gwalior,  believed 
by  the  natives  to  be  impregnable,  was  also  taken, 
sending  terror  "to  the  hearts  of  the  Mahrattas. 
But  even  these  successes  were  the  occasion  of  re- 
newed dissensions  between  the  governor  and  his 
council,  culminating  in  a  duel  between  Mr.  Hast- 
ings and  Mr.  Francis,  in  which  the  latter  was 
wounded,  and  finally  returned  to  England,  con- 
vinced that  any  amicable  arrangement  between 


French  Losses.  537 

himself  and  the  governor  would  be  impossible.  In 
July,  1770,  Admiral  Sir  John  Lindsay  reached 
Madras,  as  a  commissioner  from  the  home  govern- 
ment, but  to  little  purpose,  so  far  as  the  settlement 
of  the  pending  disputes  was  concerned.  In  1769, 
the  English  in  their  treaty  with  Hyder,  had  agreed 
to  assist  him  when  necessary,  against  the  Peishwa, 
and  twice  failing  to  render  this  aid  when  sought, 
in  1777  llyder  formed  an  alliance  with  the  French 
who  gladly  supplied  him  with  arms,  ammunition, 
and  stores  to  be  used  against  their  old  enemies, 
the  English,  while  Sir  R.  Rum  bold,  then  governor 
of  Madras,  took  no  measures  preparatory  to  any 
approach  of  Hyder  in  that  direction.  Meanwhile, 
intelligence  being  received  in  India  of  the  renewal 
of  hostilities  between  France  and  England,  steps 
were  immediately  taken  to  capture  the  French 
settlements,  left  in  so  precarious  a  condition. 
Chandernagore,  Carical,  and  Masulipatam  sur- 
rendered at  once  ;  Poridicherry  capitulated  after 
a  vigorous  defence,  and  the  garrison  marched  out 
with  the  honors  of  war.  All  the  fortifications  and 
defenses  were  destroyed.  The  small  fort  and 
settlement  of  Mahe  was  the  sole  representative  of 
French  power  in  India  ;  and  this  was  taken  by 


538  The  English  Power. 

Colonel  Braithwaite,  in  March  1779.  In  the  fol- 
lowing November,  the  nabob  of  the  Carnatic  gave 
the  Madras  Executive  warning,  that  Hyder,  the 
Nizam  and  the  Mahrattas,  had  formed  a  combina- 
tion to  expel  the  English  from  India.* 

On  the  21st  of  July,  Hyder  crossed  the  frontier, 
with  one  hundred  thousand  men  and  more  than  a 
hundred  pieces  of  artillery.  Then  followed  a 
series  of  severe  engagements  that  cannot,  within 
the  limits  of  this  work,  be  followed  in  detail. 
Arcot  was  besieged  by  Hyder  and  captured;  at 
Perambaneam,  Baillie's  force  was  attacked  by 
Tippoo  Sahib,  and  on  the  9th  of  September  a  des- 
perate engagement  took  place,  in  which,  after  a 
most  gallant  resistance,  Bailie's  force,  reduced  to 
four  hundred,  was  compelled  to  yield  the  day. 

On  the  7th  of  November,  Sir  Eyre  Coote  took 
his  seat  in  the  Madras  council,  after  which,  a  more 
vigorous  policy  was  pursued.  At  Tanjore,  Col- 
onel Braithwaite's  force  fought  bravely  for  twenty- 
six  hours  gallantly  defending  themselves  against 
nearly  four  times  their  own  number,  but  were 
finally  overpowered,  and  the  survivors  all  made 
prisoners,  by  Tippoo  and  his  French  auxiliaries. 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


Trichinopoly.  539 

The  arrival  of  a  French  fleet  at  Pondicherry,  led 
the  French  to  attempt  to  retrieve  their  recent 
losses  ;  and  Sir  Eyre  Coote  marched  boldly  on  to 
the  city,  disarmed  the  inhabitants,  removed  the 
stores,  and  destroyed  the  boats ;  and  then  he 
marched  on  after  Hyder  in  the  direction  of  Trich- 
inopoly. In  this  vicinity  a  battle  occurred  which, 
after  six  hours'  hard  fighting,  resulted  in  the  com- 
plete defeat  of  the  army  of  Mysore. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE    ENGLISH   POWER  —  TIPPOO    SAHIB    AND 
HIS    TIMES. 

FOR  several  years  after  the  appointment  of  Sir 
Eyre  Coote,  the  whole  Presidency  of  Madras 
and  the  region  round  about,  was  devastated  by 
fierce  wars  against  the  marauding  forces  of  the 
famous  Hyder  Ali,  and  his  son,  Tippoo  Sahib,  the 
most  able  native  generals  of  the  time.  In  the 
main,  the  English,  by  dint  of  superior  skill,  and 
better  munitions  of  war,  came  off  conquerors  ;  and 
after  the  death  of  Hyder,  as  Tippoo,  after  re- 
peated trials  of  his  skill,  became  convinced  of  his 
utter  inability  to  cope  with  the  English,  he,  on  the 
24th  of  February,  1792,  signed  a  treaty  which, 
though  very  favorable  to  the  interests  of  the  East 
India  Company,  was  alike  discreditable  to  himself 
540 


THE   TOWER   OF   KOUTUB,   PLAIN   OF   DELHI. 


Treaty  with   Tippoo.  543 

and  unjust  to  his  people ;  and  left  moreover,  two 
of  his  sons  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  as  hostages, 
for  the  performance  of  the  stipulations  of  the 
treaty.  But  before  this  peaceful  ending  of  this 
terrible  war,  thousands  of  England's  brave  sons 
laid  down  their  lives,  tens  of  thousands  of  the 
children  of  that  sunny  land  came  to  bloody  deaths, 
and  one  of  the  fairest  and  most  populous  portions 
of  earth's  domain  was  desolated  by  war,  pestilence, 
and  famine. 

England  and  Holland  being  now  at  war,  Lord 
Macartney,  who  had  just  arrived  at  Madras,  as 
governor,  determined  to  attack  at  once,  the  Dutch 
settlements  in  India.  Palicat  and  Sadras  both  sur- 
rendered on  the  first  summons,  and  such  energy 
and  ability  were  displayed  at  the  siege  of  Naga- 
patam,  as  compelled  the  governor  in  less  than  three 
weeks  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and  sue  for  peace. 
The  capture  of  Trincomalee  in  Ceylon  followed 
very  soon  after  the  others  ;  and  in  January  1782, 
Tellicherry  and  Calicut  were  taken  and  garrisoned 
with  English  troops.  The  following  May,  Scindia 
signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Salbyc  ;  and  the  death 
of  Hyder  Ali  took  place  in  December.  Tippoo 
found  it  necessary  soon  after  his  father's  demise, 


544  The  English  Power. 

to  visit  Western  India  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the 
Seikhs ;  and  during  his  absence,  the  English  army 
separated,  one  division  going  to  Tillicherry  and  the 
other  to  Merjee.  The  latter  being  joined  by  Gen- 
eral Matthews  with  a  large  force  passed  the 
Ghauts,  and  took  Bidnore  and  Ananpore,  and  com- 
pelled Mangalore  to  capitulate.  General  Matthews 
retained  in  his  own  possession  the  immense  treas- 
ures found  in  these  cities,  instead  of  using  it  to 
pay  off  his  troops ;  and  this  produced  such  disaf- 
fection, that  three  of  the  officers,  Colonels  McLeod 
and  Mackenzie  and  Major  Shaw,  left  precipitately, 
to  complain  of  him  at  headquarters.  Receiving 
the  redress  they  desired,  they  set  out  to  return  by 
sea,  and  were  overtaken  by  a  Mahratta  fleet. 
Neither  party  knew  of  the  treaty  signed  by  Scindia, 
and  an  engagement  followed,  in  which  Shaw  was 
killed,  Mackenzie  mortally  wounded,  and  McLeod 
wounded  and  made  prisoner.  Nor  was  this  all  the 
harm  done  by  this  ill-omened  treasure.  Tippoo 
returning,  invested  Bidnore,  and  forced  it  to  capit- 
ulate ;  and  General  Matthews,  before  inarching 
out,  distributed  the  treasure  among  his  own  sol- 
diers. This,  Tippoo  deemed  a  violation  of  the 
terms  agreed  on,  and  made  it  a  pretext  for  the  im- 


f/#"  -;  / 


THE   PRINCESS   SHAH   JEHAN. 


H.  I.— 35 


Peace.  547 

prisonment  of  Matthews,  who  was  shortly  after 
assassinated,  and  his  associates  in  arms  were  also 
subjected  to  an  exceedingly  rigorous  confinement. 
The  English  and  French  fleets  had  an  engagement 
off  Cuddalore,  in  which  the  English  won  a  decided 
victory ;  and  about  the  same  time,  peace  being 
declared  between  France  and  England,  hostilities 
in  their  colonies  ceased. 

At  this  juncture  General  Stuart  was,  for  his 
tardiness  and  inefficiency,  dismissed  from  the  com- 
pany's service,  and  refusing  to  submit  to  the 
sentence  was  arrested  and  sent  to  England,  by 
Lord  Macartney.  Meanwhile  Colonel  Fullerton 
was  achieving  great  victories  in  Southern  India, 
where  he  captured  Palagatcherry  and  Coimbatore, 
and  would  have  pushed  on  to  the  relief  of  Man- 
galore  that  was  invested  by  Tippoo's  troops,  but 
for  counter  orders. 

A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the  com- 
batants, March  llth  1784,  and  ratified  by  the 
Supreme  Council  of  Calcutta  during  the  absence 
of  Governor  Hastings,  who  desired  after  his  re- 
turn, to  introduce  several  modifications,  but  these, 
Lord  Macartney  honorably  rejected. 

The   Supreme    Court  of   Calcutta  consisted  of 


548  The  English  Power. 

one  chief  and  three  puisne  judges ;  and  its  juris- 
diction compassed  all  claims  of  the  company 
against  British  subjects,  and  of  British  subjects 
against  natives,  presuming  that  the  disputants 
acquiesced  in  appealing  to  its  decisions.  In  crimi- 
nal cases,  it  extended  to  all  British  subjects  and 
servants  of  the  company ;  but  the  act  did  not 
define  what  constituted  a  British  subject,  and  the 
judges  were  in  the  habit  of  regarding  all  over 
whom  the  company  exercised  any  influence,  as 
coming  within  its  jurisdiction.  Difficulties  in  con- 
sequence of  this  vagueness  often  arose,  especially 
in  collecting  debts,  revenues,  etc.  In  collecting 
the  revenue,  the  power  of  exercising  summarj^  en- 
forcement was  vested  in  the  provincial  councils 
called  Dewani  Adaulut ;  but  with  these  the  power 
of  the  Supreme  Court  often  conflicted,  the  defend- 
ant being  able  to  take  out  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
in  the  Supreme  Court,  when  the  judges  took  bail 
for  the  appearance  of  the  parties,  and  liberated 
them.  The  company  had  also  reserved  to  the 
nabob  of  Bengal  the  administration  of  all  civil 
cases ;  but  the  Supreme  Court  declined  to  recog- 
nize this  reservation ;  and  Mr.  Hastings  instituted 
a  new  court,  the  Sudder  Dewani  Adaulut,  and 


Oheyt    Singh.  549 

committed  the  administration  of  it  to  Sir  Elijah 
Impey.  As  the  office  and  emoluments  were  held 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  governor  and  council,  it 
was  supposed  that  the  presiding  officer  would  not 
admit  the  pretensions  of  the  Supreme  Court 
against  the  Dewani  Adaulut,  but  would  rather 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  them.  These  pro- 
ceedings were  however,  censured  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  Sir  Elijah  Impey  was  recalled  to 
answer  criminal  charges.  The  governor  made  also 
important  changes  in  the  finance  department ;  and 
afterwards  attempted  to  replenish  the  depleted 
treasury  by  very  questionable  measures.  Extor- 
tion and  violence  done  to  the  person  of  Cheyt 
Singh,  the  Rajah  of  Benares  resulted  in  a  popular 
outbreak,  and  despite  the  Rajah's  offers  of  submis- 
sion, he  was  deposed  from  office,  his  treasure 
seized,  a  new  ruler  appointed,  and  the  laws  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  company.  Equally 
reprehensible  was  the  course  of  the  governor  in 
regard  to  the  nabob  of  Oudh,  who  being  in  arrears 
to  the  government,  a  new  President  was  appointed, 
empowered  to  enforce  payment,  though  the  reve- 
nues of  the  nabob  had  been  exhausted  in  the  sup- 
port of  the  English  troops  forced  upon  him.  By 


550  The  English  Power. 

the  connivance  of  the  governor,  and  the  atrocious 
complicity  of  the  resident  and  nabob,  two  royal 
ladies  of  Lucknow  who  had  inherited  immense 
wealth,  were  seized  and  kept  prisoners,  until  large 
sums  had  been  extorted  from  them,  in  payment  of 
the  nabob's  dues,  and  for  the  relief  of  the  govern- 
ment treasury.  Hastings  share  in  these  proceed- 
ings was  rewarded  by  a  gift  from  the  nabob  of  a 
hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling  which  he  asked 
the  company's  permission  to  accept,  in  payment 
for  his  services. 

The  money  thus  obtained,  supplied  the  means  of 
prosecuting  the  war  with  renewed  energy,  and 
probably  saved  England  her  valuable  Eastern 
Empire  ;  but  such  measures  certainly  did  not  win 
for  Great  Britain  a  throne  in  the  affections  of  her 
Indian  subjects,  and  probably  paved  the  way  for 
the  troubles  of  later  years.  The  power  of  Great 
Britain  in  India  being  now  consolidated,  and  her 
authority  recognized,  several  years  of  peace  fol- 
lowed, during  which  Governor  Hastings  tendered 
his  resignation,  and  in  1785  returned  to  England. 

Most  unfavorable  reports  had  from  time  to  time 
reached  Parliament  concerning  the  peculation  and 
oppression  practised  by  the  servants  of  the  East 


Lord  Cornwallis.  553 

India  Company,  and  when  a  new  governor  had 
been  appointed,  Pitt,  then  Prime  Minister,  intro- 
duced and  carried  his  "  India  Bill,"  which  estab- 
lished a  Board  of  Control,  composed  of  six  privy 
councilors  chosen  by  the  sovereign  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  empowered  to  hold  in  check,  the  more 
important  functions  of  the  company.  Lord  Corn- 
walk's  was  the  governor  appointed  to  succeed  Mr. 
Hastings,  and  reached  his  post  in  September,  1786, 
the  government  having  been  administered  in  the 
interim,  with  great  ability,  by  Mr.  Macpherson, 
the  Senior  Member  of  the  Council.  The  peace 
that  smiled  so  propitiously  on  the  advent  of  Lord 
Cornwallis,  was  soon  broken  and  the  horrors  of 
civil  war  once  more  clouded  the  Indian  atmos- 
phere. The  restless,  ambitious  Tippoo  was  the 
first  to  begin  trouble  by  an  invasion  of  the  territory 
of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  English  ally ;  but 
before  they  had  time  to  interfere,  the  intrepidity  of 
a  small  body  of  Nairs,  had  achieved  a  complete 
victory  over  the  great  army  of  Tippoo,  who  was 
hotly  pursued  by  the  Nairs,  and  had  difficulty  in 
escaping  with  his  life.  This  treacherous  foe  next 
renewed  his  attack  more  successfully,  and  on  the 
7th  of  May  17 90,'  captured  the  city,  and  devastated 


554  The  English  Power. 

the  surrounding  country.     This  brought  the  forces 
of  General  Meadows  from  Madras,  and  those  of 
General  Abercrombie  from  Bombay,  both  of  whom 
penetrated  far  into  the  Mysore   county  ;  but  the 
campaign  terminated  in  Tippoo's  favor.     The  sec- 
ond  campaign  was  conducted  by  Lord  Cornwallis 
in  person,  who  gained  some  decided  advantages, 
but  was  compelled  to  suspend  operations,  by  the 
advance  of  the  season,  and  the  increasing  sickness 
among  his  troops.     The  third  campaign  opened  by 
the  capture   of  the   two    celebrated   fortresses   of 
Savendroog  and  Octadroog,  followed  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  a  strongly  fortified  camp  of  the  Mysorean 
army  of  ten  thousand  men,  with  a  large  quantity 
of  guns  and  stores.     The  fortress  of  Lamaga   fell 
next  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  Tippoo  sued 
for  peace ;  but  the  victorious  army  pushed  on  to 
lay  siege  to  Seringapatam,  which  on  the  7th  of 
February,  1792,  fell  before  this  valiant  onslaught 
of  the  English  besiegers,  Tippoo's  loss  amounting 
to  over  four  thousand,  and  that  of  the  English  to 
five  hundred  and  thirty-five.     On  the  24th,  Tippoo 
signed  a  treaty,  giving  up  one  half  his  territories 
to  the  English,  agreeing  to  pay  all  the  expenses  of 
the  war,  and  leaving  in  the  hands  of  his  conquer- 


Wellington.  555 

ors,  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages  for  the  performance 
of  these  stipulations. 

The  charter  of  the  East  India  Company  was 
renewed  in  1793  ;  and  Lord  Cornwallis  retiring, 
was  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Shore,  as  governor. 
The  terms  of  the  treaty  having  been  fulfilled,  the 
sons  of  Tippoo  were  delivered  with  due  honors ; 
but  Tippoo  received  the  officer  who  accompanied 
them,  with  haughty  reserve,  and  declined  any 
further  advances  of  the  governor. 

Affairs  in  Oudh  were  again  in  an  unsettled  state, 
and  those  in  the  Carnatic  looked  still  more  un- 
promising, in  the  midst  of  which,  Sir  John  Shore 
having  been  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Teignmouth,  sailed  for  England,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Mornington,  May,  1798.  Tippoo 
about  this  period  sent  officers  to  the  Mauritius  to 
form  an  alliance  with  the  French,  and  to  solicit 
aid  to  drive  the  English  out  of  Southern  India, 
offering  also  to  pay  handsomely  for  volunteers. 
War  was  accordingly  declared  against  Tippoo,  and 
preparations  begun  for  the  immediate  commence- 
ment of  aggressive  movements.  At  Mallavely  the 
first  engagement  occurred,  Colonel  Wellesley,  after- 
ward the  Great  Duke  of  Wellington,  commanding 


556  The  English  Power. 

the  left  wing.  The  English  here  achieved  a  great 
victory,  and  pushed  forward  to  Seringpatara,  which 
was  laid  siege  to,  and  taken  by  assault  on  the  4th 
of  May.  At  one  o'clock,  Syed  Goffhar,  Tippoo's 
best  general,  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball ;  and  late 
in  the  evening,  Tippoo's  body  was  found  where  he 
had  fallen,  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  pierced  by 
musket  balls.  The  next  day,  his  body  was  placed 
in  the  tomb  of  Hyder  AH,  attended  by  the  highest 
military  honors ;  and  his  family  were  taken  under 
the  protection  of  the  English,  and  treated  with 
the  respect  due  to  their  exalted  position. 

Thus  ended  the  career  of  one  of  the  most  implac- 
able foes  of  the  British  race  in  India.  His  emblem, 
the  one  he  liked  best  to  emblazon  on  shields  and 
flags,  was  a  tiger,  an  appropriate  emblem  of  his 
own  savage  disposition  ;  and  he  so  delighted  in 
these  ferocious  animals,  that  he  kept  numbers  of 
them  about  his  palace,  and  often  made  them  the 
ministers  of  his  vengeance.  It  is  said  that  a  favor- 
ite toy  of  his  was  the  figure  of  a  tiger  in  the  act 
of  tearing  a  European  to  pieces ;  and  that  by 
turning  a  crank,  the  machine  was  made  to  emit  a 
dual  sound,  resembling  the  mingled  growls  of  a 
tiger  -and  the  agonized  groans  of  a  dying  man. 


Tippoo's  Death.  557 

His  love  of  war  seems  to  have  grown  out  of  a 
cruel  delight  in  the  miseries  it  occasions ;  and  he 
seems  to  have  taken  especial  pleasure  in  exercising 
his  ferocity  upon  such  English  prisoners  as  fell 
into  his  hands.  Death  by  the  sword  was  the  most 
merciful  fate  that  came  to  any  so  unfortunate  as  to 
be  left  to  his  disposal;  and  "terrible  atrocities 
were  revealed  when  his  death  unloosed  the  tongues 
of  his  oppressed  people." 

The  death  of  the  Sultan  gave  his  country  into 
the  possession  of  the  conquerors  without  any  show 
of  opposition ;  and  all  the  Mysorean  strongholds 
were  at  once  occupied  by  English  troops.  Colonel 
Wellesley  was  appointed  governor  of  Mysore,  and 
assumed  the  military  charge  of  Seringapatam, 
governing  with  a  union  of  moderation  and  firm- 
ness quite  in  contrast  with  the  cruelty  and  capri- 
ciousness  of  the  tyrant  Tippoo,  and  soon  restoring 
order  throughout  the  province. 

The  next  event  of  most  importance  to  be 
noticed  in  connection  with  Indian  history,  is  the 
invasion,  in  1795,  and  again  in  1797,  of  Punjaub 
and  Lahore,  by  Shah  Zeinan,  the  Afghan  king  who 
in  the  second  instance,  had  succeeded  in  the  occu- 
pation of  Lahore,  when  he  was  prevented  from 


558  The  English  Power. 

making  farther  advances  by  a  rebellion  in  his  own 
capital.  A  similar  attempt  was  made  the  follow- 
ing year,  when  he  again  had  to  withdraw,  to  pro- 
tect his  territory  from  an  attack  of  the  Persians  ; 
and  in  1801,  he  was  deposed  and  imprisoned  by 
his  brother. 

At  Benares,  difficulties  occurred  in  connection 
with  the  deposed  Rajah  of  Oudh,  whom  it  was 
proposed  to  remove  to  Calcutta,  for  greater  safety. 
The  resident  and  several  other  Englishmen  were 
murdered  in  cold  blood,  when  Vizir  Ali  fled,  seek- 
ing protection  from  a  Rajput  chief,  but  he  was 
afterward  surrendered  to  the  English.  The  gov- 
ernment of  Oudh  was  shortly  after,  assumed  by  the 
company,  and  the  court  and  family  of  the  nabob 
provided  for.  After  various  difficulties  with  their 
respective  governments,  Surat,  Tanjore,  and  the 
Carnatic  were  placed  under  British  control ;  and 
negotiations  were  opened  with  the  Peishwa,  who 
was  nominally  the  Mahratta  sovereign,  though  in 
reality  both  Holkar  and  Scindia  exerted  far  more 
power  and  influence.  Holkar's  family  had  been 
for  nearly  a  century,  the  acknowledged  head  of 
the  northern,  states,  but  at  this  period,  there  arose 
a  disagreement  about  the  succession,  that  gave  to 


Gruicowar   of  Baroda.  561 

Scindia,  the  pretext  for  interference,  who  declared 
Cashee  Rao   sovereign,  and   put    Mulhar  Rao  to 
death,  but  retained  a  posthumous  son  of  the  latter, 
as  a  check  on  the  uncle.     But  another  claimant 
arose  in  the  person  of   Holkar's  illegitimate  son 
whose  first  attempt  was   however,  defeated  near 
Indore,  on  the  14th  of  October,  1801.     The  next 
year,  he  again  opposed  the  united  forces  of  Scindia 
and   the    Peishwa,    near   Poonah,  where,   after   a 
severe  engagement,  he  obtained  a  decided  victory. 
The  terrified  Peishwa  took  no  part  in  the  battle, 
and  after  its  conclusion  sent  for  the  English  resi- 
dent  and   offered    to    maintain   six  battalions   of 
Seapoys,  and  yield  twenty-five  lacs  of  rupees  out 
of  his  revenues  for  their  support,  in  return  for  aid 
from  the   English ;  and  despite  all  that  could  be 
said  to  reassure  him,  he  fled  in  an  English  ship  to 
Bassein.     Holkar  also  sent  for  the  resident,  and 
expressed  a  desire  for  his  mediation  and  for  an  am- 
icable arrangement  with  Scindia  and  the  Peishwa. 
The   death  of  the   Guicowar  of   Baroda  in  1800, 
gave   rise   to  disputes  in   that  direction ;  his  son 
being  an  imbecile,    and  therefore  inelligible,   the 
choice    lay  between    the   prime    minister,  Nowjee 

Apajee,  and  an  illegitimate  brother  of  the  deceased 
H.  I.— 36 


562  The  Enyliah  Power. 

sovereign.  The  English  decided  in  favor  of  the 
minister,  who  was  accordingly  invested  as  sover- 
eign, and  began  his  reign  by  dismissing  a  band  of 
Arabs  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  the  late 
Guicowar.  These,  however,  refused  to  disband, 
and  mutinying  seized  and  imprisoned  the  Guicowar. 
The  English  immediately  besieged  Baroda  which 
in  ten  days  succumbed,  and  the  mutineers  were 
driven  from  Guzerat. 

After  Bajee  Rao's  flight  to  Bassein,  and  the 
proclamation  of  Amrut  Rao  as  Peishwa,  the  most 
violent  excesses  were  pepetrated,  and  the  English 
had  again  to  interfere.  The  former  Peishwa  was 
restored  to  govern  under  English  protection  ;  all 
Europeans  hostile  to  the  English  were  to  be  ban- 
ished from  the  territory,  and  all  points  of  dispute 
between  the  Guicowar  and  Peishwa  were  to  be 
submitted  to  the  English  for  decision.  Amrut 
Rao  was  also  awarded  a  pension  and  a  residence 
at  Benares.  This  arrangement  resulted  in  a  re- 
newal of  hostilities  between  the  English  and  the 
Mahrattas.  General  Lake  was  assigned  command 
in  the  north  ;  and  Colonel  Wellesley  in  the  Deccan, 
where  his  first  step  was  the  redemption  of  the 
strong  fort  of  Ahmednagur,  and  his  next  to  pursue 


Battle   of  Assaye.  565 

the  Mahrattas  and  bring  them  to  a  decisive  action. 
The  battle  of  Assaye,  so  famous  in  Indian  history, 
took  place  on  the  23rd  of  September,  1803,  and 
was  a  most  brilliant  victory  to  the  English,  though 
with  fearful  loss  on  both  sides.  The  city  of 
Burhampore  and  the  fort  of  Asseeghur  were  taken 
on  the  24th  while  the  Baroach  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Guzerat  troops.  At  the  north,  General  Lake 
took  Alijurh,  and  then  advanced  upon  Delhi, 
which  was  captured  after  great  slaughter  upon 
both  sides,  and  the  emperor  Shah  Alum  delivered 
from  the  Mahratta  captivity.  Lake's  next  move  was 
upon  Agra,  which  before  the  outbreak,  had  been 
in  the  hands  of  Seapoy  soldiers  commanded  by 
English  officers.  These  had  been  seized,  when  hos- 
tilities began,  and  confined  by  their  own  men. 
Seven  battalions  of  Scindia  were  taken  by  Lake, 
and  then  the  garrison  capitulated,  allowing  the 
captive  officers  to  retire  with  their  private  effects. 
On  the  1st  of  November  occurred  the  battle  of 
Laswarre,  that  destroyed  the  power  of  Scindia  in 
Northern  India;  and  at  the  same  time  Bundel- 
cund  was  brought  under  English  power.  In  the 
Deccan,  the  battles  of  Argoam,  Nagpore,  and 
others,  resulted  in  the  same  way,  with  large  acces- 


566  The  English  Power. 

sions  of  territory  to  the  English.  New  treachery 
on  the  part  of  Holkar,  and  constant  plunder  of  his 
people,  brought  down  the  English  again  in  that 
direction.  On  the  17th  of  November,  Lake,  in  an 
engagement  with  Holkar,  at  Furruckabad,  killed 
three  thousand  of  his  men,  and  ten  days  later 
Deeg  was  stormed  and  taken,  leaving  only  Bhurt- 
pore  as  a  refuge  for  Holkar.  This  was  invested  in 
January,  1805,  but  the  Rajah  suing  for  peace,  it 
was  granted  on  favorable  terms. 

Col.  Wellesley's  policy  from  the  first,  had  been 
to  strip  the  natives  of  military  power,  thus  giving 
the  East  India  Company  easy  control  of  them. 
This  he  had  now  nearly  accomplished,  a  very  large 
portion  of  territory  was  either  in  the  hands  of  the 
English,  or  under  their  "  protection ;  "  the  power 
of  the  Mahrattas,  well  named  "  The  Great  Power  " 
was  broken,  and  though  not  yet  quite  overthrown, 
was  becoming  rapidly  under  control.  Still  the  in- 
domitable Lake  pushed  on  after  the  retreating  foe, 
nor  paused  .till  he  had  crossed  the  line  of  Alex- 
ander's conquests,  and  pitched  his  tents  on  the 
banks  of  the  Hyphasis  (the  Beas)  where  in  the 
long  ago,  the  "  Conqueror  of  the  World"  had  en- 
camped. Yet  he  was  not  permitted  to  grasp  the 


A  Disastrous   Treaty.  567 

boon  for  which  he  had  toiled  and  risked  so  much. 
When  almost  within  sight  of  Holkar's  retreat,  he 
was  directed  by  the  acting  governor,  Sir  George 
Barlow,  to  conclude  a  peace  with  the  Mahratta 
chief,  and  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  submit. 
This  treaty  restored  all  his  lost  territory  to. 
Holkar,  broke  off  the  English  alliance  with  Jey- 
pore,  and  sent  the  army  back  to  Delhi. 

This  disgraceful  treaty  was  destined  to  prove  a 
failure,  and  ere  long  all  the  sad  lessons  of  the  last 
campaign  with  their  losses  and  sufferings,  were  re- 
peated. We  cannot  in  our  limited  space,  follow 
all  the  details,  but  must  touch  on  the  leading 
events.  After  some  new  atrocities  Holkar  became 
insane,  and  remained  so  until  his  death  in  1811, 
thus  removing  one  obstacle  to  the  peace  of  India. 
Meanwhile  Lord  Minto  had  succeeded  to  the  office 
of  governor.  A  statesman  of  great  ability  and  in- 
dependence, he  at  once  abandoned  the  non-interven- 
tion policy  of  Sir  George  Barlow,  and  determined 
upon  protecting  the  innocent,  but  equally  upon 
punishing  the  guilty  cause  of  turmoil  and  violence. 

It  was  in  the  year  1808,  that  rumors  began  to 
spread,   of  the  efforts  of  the  Great  Napoleon  to 


568  The  English  Power. 

injure  or  jeopardize  the  Anglo-Indian  cause,  and 
of  attempted  complicity  with  the  court  of  Persia. 
During  the  same  year  a  number  of  French  frigates 
sailed  from  various  ports,  to  the  great  detriment 
of  trade  in  the  Indian  Seas ;  and  Lord  Minto  pro- 
ceeded to  deprive  them  of  ports  of  refuge  by  at- 
tacking  the   islands  of    Bourbon,    Mauritius    and 
Java.     The  reduction  of  the  first  two  was  readily 
accomplished ;  though  in  Java,  garrison  after  garri- 
had  to  be  taken  before  Jansen,  the  Dutch  governor, 
would  submit ;  but  on  the  16th  of  September,  the 
island  was  given  up  to  the    English.      The  next 
source    of     trouble    was    the    incursions    of    the 
Ghookas,    a   warlike    race    on    the    north-eastern 
frontier.     These  were  finally  reduced,  but   at  the 
cost  of  much  blood  and  treasure,  as  was  also  the 
expedition  into  Nepaul,  in  which  these  Ghoorkas 
bore  a   strong   hand   against   the    English.       For, 
whether  in  the   entrenched  fortress  of  their  own 
mountain  ridges,  or  in  their  incursions  into    the 
surrounding  country,  this  was  a  brave  and  warlike 
race,  not  easily  intimidated.     In  February,  1816, 
proposals  for  peace  having  been  made,  to  which 
the  Nepaulese  refused  to  accede,  further  aggressive 


The    Mahrattas.  569 

measures  were  decided  on,  when  they  themselves 
sued  for  peace,  and  gladly  accepted  terms  they  had 
before  refused. 

The  British  reverses  at  the  beginning  of  this 
war,  had  given  new  impulse  to  their  old  enemies, 
the  Mahrattas.  Mr.  Elphinstone,  the  resident  at 
Poonah,  inade  several  attempts  for  an  amicable 
arrangement,  but  was  as  often  foiled  by  the 
Peishwa  and  his  depraved  minister  Trimbuckjee, 
and  various  complications,  especially  with  the 
Guicowar,  until  the  English  forced  them  to  ac- 
cept either  war  or  submission  ;  and  Bajee  Rao,  the 
last  of  the  Peishwas,  on  the  18th  of  June,  1817, 
reluctantly  signed  a  treaty,  renouncing  his  preten- 
sions as  head  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  and  giving 
up  to  the  English,  besides  the  strong  fortress  of 
Ahmednagur,  a  considerable  portion  of  other  terri- 
tory. A  supplementary  treaty  was  arranged  the 
following  November,  with  the  Guicowar,  in  which 
the  Peishwa's  claims  were  settled  by  the  annual 
payment  of  four  lacs  of  rupees  ($200,000)  and 
the  English  received  as  their  share  of  the  bargain, 
the  city  of  Ahmedabad,  the  capital  of  Guzerat, 
and  a  place  of  large  political  importance. 


570  The  English  Power. 

Scindia  failing  in  some  stipulations  he  had  made 
to  furnish  a  contingent  to  act  with  the   British, 
under  a  British  officer,  in  the  reduction  of    the 
Pindarries,   and  to  allow  the  use  of  his   forts  of 
Assurghur  and  Scindia  during  the  war,  the   Eng- 
lish eventually  besieged   and    captured    the   fort, 
when  evidences  of  Scindia's  insincerity  were  found 
in   his  own  writing.     As   a  penalty   the    English 
demanded   absolute   cession  of    Assurghur,    to  be 
retained  permanently  in  their  keeping.     The  battle 
of  Kirkee  in  November,  1817  was  another  brilliant 
victory  to  the  English,  as  was  also  that  of  Naffpore, 
on  the  26th  of  the  same  month.       Chandore-Galna 
and  Unktunky  were   occupied   by   British  troops 
shortly  after,  and  the  war  was  virtually  ended  by 
the  capture  of  Bajee  Rae  and  Trimbukcee,  both  of 
whom  remained  prisoners  for  life,  within  the  British 
lines,  the  former  with  the    handsome  pension  of 
£  80,000  or  1400,000  a  year.     Assurghur,  after  an 
obstinate  defence,  yielded  on  the  9th  of  April,  1819, 
and  with  its  fall  ended  this  famous  Mahratta  war. 
Early  in  1822,  Governor  Hastings  resigned,  having 
filled  this  high  office  for    nine  years,  during  which 
the  power  of  the  Mahrattas  and   Pindarries  had 


Hastings  Reigns  Again.  571 

been  successfully  broken,  Scindia  alone  remaining, 
and  he  no  longer  a  formidable  foe ;  while  the  name 
and  reputation  of  the  East  India  Company  had 
been  widely  extended,  and  both  trade  and  revenue 
were  rapidly  on  the  increase. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  ENGLISH   POWER  —  BURMESE   AND   PUNJAUB 
WARS   AND   THE    CONQUEST    OF    SCINDE. 

WITH  the  close  of  the  administration  of  Gov- 
ernor Hastings  ended  the  Mahratta  war ; 
but  with  the  advent  of  his  successor,  the  Earl  of 
Amherst,  was  ushered  in  another  contest  equally 
tedious  and  annoying.  The  first  Burmese  war 
lasted  two  years,  from  1824,  to  1826,  and  ended  in 
the  cession  of  Assam  and  the  Tenasserim  Prov- 
inces, to  the  East  India  Company.  It  is  not  our 
purpose  to  trace  the  progress  of  this  war,  but 
merely  to  glance  at  its  causes  and  results,  and  pass 
on  to  that  which  pertains  strictly  to  the  history  of 
India.  An  old  source  of  dissatisfaction  had  ex- 
isted between  the  governments  of  Burmah  and 

572 


The    Burmese    War.  578 

British  India  from  the  year  1798,  when  some 
thirty  thousand  Mugs,  a  race  inhabiting  a  section 
of  Arracan,  fled  from  Burmese  tyranny,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  British  district  of  Chittagong,  where 
they  settled  down  in  villages  and  towns,  in  various 
pursuits.  Requisition  had  more  than  once  been 
made  by  His  Burmese  Majesty,  for  the  return  of 
these  "  slaves  "  to  their  liege  lord  ;  but  as  Eng- 
land does  not  recognize  slavery,  she  declined  to 
deliver  up,  nolens  volens,  these  quiet,  peaceable 
subjects  of  her  empire*  This  was  the  old  grudge 
entertained  by  "  His  golden-footed  Majesty  " 
against  his  "  Cousins  of  England ;  "  but  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  hostilities  was  a  dispute  concern- 
ing the  island  of  Shaporee,  an  unimportant  tract 
at  the  entrance  of  Tek  Nauf,  the  arm  of  the  sea 
that  divides  Chittagong  from  Arracan.  This  the 
Burmese  took  forcible  possession  of,  and  pro- 
claimed it  a  part  of  their  empire,  besides  doing 
violence  to  the  small  English  garrison  found  on 
the  island.  Other  larger  bodies  of  ^troops  from 
Assam  and  Munnipore  shortly  crossed  the  frontier, 
and  early  in  January  1824,  Lord  Amherst  issued 
a  "  manifesto,"  preparatory  to  a  formal  declaration 
of  war.  This  conflict  lasted  till  February,  1826, 


574  The  English  Power. 

resulting  in  the  annexation  of  the  valuable  prov- 
inces before  named. 

The  cause  of  the  second  breaking  out  of  hostil- 
ities between  the  English  and  Burmese,  was  the 
maltreatment  in  the  fort  of  Rangoon,  of  certain 
British  merchant-captains,  who  were,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  native  governor,  subjected  to  spoliation 
and  insult.  The  demand  for  apolog\r  and  restitu- 
tion having  been  rejected,  war  was  declared,  hostil- 
ities beginning  April  2nd  1852,  and  ending  in 
December  of  the  same  year,  by  the  annexation  of 
the  Province  of  Pegu. 

The  temporary  administration  of  Mr.  Adams, 
pending  the  arrival  of  the  newly-appointed  gov- 
ernor, has  been  rendered  somewhat  notorious  by 
the  exercise  of  a  power,  that  though  vested  in  the 
government,  had  not  hitherto  been  resorted  to  in 
the  whole  history  of  the  Anglo-Indian  Colonies. 
This  was  the  "  censorship  of  the  press ; "  and 
added  to  it,  was  the  discretionary  power  of  "  ban- 
ishing from  Jthe  company's  territories  any  trouble- 
some or  refractory  editor."  This  power  was 
exercised  by  Mr.  Adams,  against  the  editor  of  the 
Calcutta  Journal,  who  having  published  some 
strictures  upon  the  acts  of  the  executive,  was  noti- 


l'S/'.'-S     ; ••'- -~ -/•-"*•         ""    Jr~i-':- •".••' 
' '  .  /  ••••  .  «***^   -^<    ^ 


SOLDIERS    OF    THE    NIZAM    OF    HYDERABAD. 


A  Financial  Failure.  577 

fied  to  quit  the  country  within  a  few  days.  This 
despotic  proceeding  called  forth  much  censure  in 
England,  but  was  sustained  by  the  supreme  gov- 
ernment. 

Another  event  of  this  period  was  the  failure  of 
the  commercial  firm  of  Palmer  and  Company, 
who,  certainly  with  the  cognizance,  and  probably 
with  the  approval  of  Governor  Hastings,  had  for  a 
series  of  years,  contracted  loans  of  money  to  the 
Nizam  of  the  Deccan,  amounting  in  the  aggregate, 
to  £  700,000  or  83,500,000.  Some  difficulty  having 
arisen  between  the  contracting  parties,  appeal  was 
made  to  the  governor-general,  who  declared  the 
transaction  illegal,  and  that  the  firm  could  recover 
nothing  from  the  Nizam,  the  company  having  re- 
served to  itself  the  sole  right  of  entering  upon 
monetary  transactions  with  native  powers.  The 
result  was  the  immediate  insolvency  of  this  large 
and  wealthy  house,  and  with  them,  of  very  many 
of  the  "  Service,"  who  had  employed  Palmer  and 
Company  as  their  bankers,  and  with  whom  were 
invested  their  entire  fortunes.  About  this  period, 
negotiations  among  the  several  European  powers 
relative  to  Dutch  settlements,  captured  during  the 

late  wars,  was   brought   to  a  final  issue,  by  the 
H.  I.— 37 


578  The  English  Power. 

British  ceding  to  Holland,  the  islands  of  Sumatra 
Bencoolen,  arid  retaining  possession  of  Malacca 
and  Singapore.  The  last,  under  the  fostering  care 
of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  rose  rapidly  to  a  commer- 
cial importance  exceeding  that  of  any  other  Anglo- 
oriental  colony ;  and  is  at  the  present  day,  with 
its  salubrious  climate,  its  wonderful  development, 
and  enormous  trade,  the  very  Queen  of  the  Indian 
Seas. 

In  1827,  previous  to  his  departure  for  England, 
Lord  Amherst  made  a  tour  of  the  upper  provinces, 
and  visited  Delhi,  for  the  express  purpose  of  set- 
ting aside  the  merely  nominal  sovereignty  of 
Akbar  Shah,  the  last  of  the  oriental  monarchs  of 
India. 

The  administration  of  the  successor  of  Lord 
Amherst  began  with  the  year  1828,  and  unlike 
any  that  had  preceeded  it,  Lord  William  Bentich's 
term  of  office  was  marked  by  no  great  military  ex- 
ploits ;  the  inroads  of  some  petty  hill-tribes,  the 
deposition  of  the  Rajah  of  Coorg,  and  some  other 
unimportant  regulations  in  regard  to  territory, 
being  the  only  exceptions  in  this  reign  of  peace. 
The  new  governor's  attention  was  therefore  given 
to  internal  improvements,  and  especially  to  needed 


Progress.  581 

reforms  in  the  civil  service.  Many  new  privileges 
to  the  natives,  were  also  secured  to  them,  and 
among  the  most  important,  was  an  enactment 
freeing  seceders  from  the  Hindu  or  Mohammedan 
faith,  within  the  Bengal  Presidency,  from  all  the 
penalties  that  under  the  old  native  laws,  attached 
to  such  act,  i.  e.  the  forfeiture  of  all  personal  and 
family  property  and  rights.  Education,  too  re- 
ceived a  fresh  impulse ;  and  to  this  day,  many  of 
the  best  educational  enterprises  of  the  country  are 
associated  with  the  name  of  this  excellent  gov- 
ernor. 

To  this  administration  belongs  also  the  begin- 
ning of  steam  communication  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  the  great  "  overland  route  "  from  England  to 
India.  The  former,  having  in  view  the  extension 
of  British  commerce,  and  the  ascertaining  of  the 
feasibility  of  Russian  invasion  from  that  quarter 
was  entrusted  to  Lieutenant,  afterwards,  Sir  Alex- 
ander Burnes.  To  Lieutenant  Waghorn  belongs 
the  fame  of  arranging  and  carrying  to  a  successful 
termination  the  plan  of  overland  communication 
between  India  and  Great  Britain,  by  way  of  the 
Red  Sea,  Egypt,  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
navigation  of  the  rivers,  Ganges  and  Indus,  by 


582  The  English  Power. 

steam-vessels  was  introduced  about  the  same 
time.  Railroads  came  later  —  the  first  opened  in 
India,  being  that  between  Bombay  and  Tanna, 
April  6th  1853. 

The'  year  1833  was  marked  by  several  very  im- 
portant changes  in  the  functions  of  the  East  India 
Company,  among  which,  were  the  following :  That 
the  company  should  retain  its  political  rights,  and 
give  its  entire  attention  to  the  government  of 
India ;  that  it  should  cease  to  be  a  commercial 
body,  and  should  resign  its  monopolies  of  China 
and  India,  both  being  declared  free  to  every 
British  subject ;  with  sundry  other  regulations  re- 
garding finance  and  dividends. 

In  1835,  Lord  William  Bentich  resigned  his 
office  of  governor,  on  account  of  failing  health, 
and  returned  to  England.  Lord  Auckland  was 
appointed  his  successor,  and  made  his  advent 
under  most  auspicious  circumstances,  the  political 
horizon  being  without  a  cloud ;  but  he  left  it  wrapped 
in  gloom,  with  the  horror  of  great  darkness  enshroud- 
ing the  entire  community.  Shah  Shujah,  the  im- 
becile ruler  of  Afghanistan  had  been  recently 
expelled  from  his  domain  by  his  turbulent  subjects, 
and  had  taken  refuge  in  the  British  fortress  of 


Afghan  War.  583 

Ludiana.  The  Punjaub  was  under  control  of 
Runjet  Singh,  a  man  who  for  his  valor  and  energy 
had  been  dubbed  u  The  Lion  of  Lahore."  His 
territory  formed  the  barrier  between  British  India 
and  Afghanistan,  and  was  nearly  always  involved 
in  turmoils  with  the  turbulent  Afghans.  In  1837, 
a  mission  to  Cabul  was  undertaken  by  Captain 
Burnes,  but  was  fruitful  of  no  results ;  and  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Punjaub,  while  courteously  received, 
accomplished  nothing.  Lord  Auckland  at  once 
decided  to  declare  war  against  Dost  Mohammed, 
the  Afghan  usurper,  restore  the  deposed  monarch 
to  his  rights,  with  the  ultimatum  of  annexing  both 
Afghanistan  and  the  Punjaub,  to  the  company's 
possessions,  or  helping  their  rulers  to  govern  under 
"  British  protection."  In  October,  1838,  war  was 
declared,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year,  the  Bengal 
and  Bombay  troops  were  already  massed  at  the 
appointed  rendezvous,  Shikapore  in  Scincle.  From 
the  very  outset  it  was  a  campaign,  rife  with  dis- 
asters ;  cholera,  insufficient  means  of  transport, 
and  lack  of  needed  stores,  but  prepared  the  way 
for  other  and  far  greater  sufferings.  When  they 
had  only  reached  the  foot  of  the  Western  moun- 
tains, provisions  were  so  short  that  the  allowance 


584  The  English  Power. 

to  the  troops  was  reduced  one  half,  and  many  of 
the  camp  followers,  of  whom  there  are  said  to 
have  been  one  hundred  thousand  at  the  outset, 
were  compelled  to  subsist  on  roots  and  herbs.  On 
the  20th  of  May,  when  Candahar  was  reached  the 
hundred  thousand  had  been  reduced  to  twenty 
thousand.  Ghazni  and  Cabul  were  stormed  and 
taken,  and  both  occupied  by  British  troops,  who 
though  badly  supplied  with  provisions  and  other 
necessaries,  they  managed  to  live  through  the  first 
winter  with  comparatively  little  suffering.  But 
with  the  opening  spring,  marauding  parties  poured 
in  upon  them  from  every  quarter,  shooting  down 
stragglers,  cutting  off  supplies,  and  harrassing  the 
troops  in  every  possible  way.  Dost  Mohammed 
had  given  himself  up  to  the  British  envoy  and 
with  his  numerous  family  had  been  sent  beyond 
the  frontier ;  but  Akbar  Khan,  his  "  fighting  son  " 
went  everywhere  rousing  the  people  to  resistance 
of  the  invaders,  and  leading  large  bodies  against 
them,  continually  diminishing  their  numbers,  and 
destroying  all  hope  of  success.  Thus  the  months 
wore  away,  till  the  2nd  of  November,  1841,  ush- 
ered in  a  general  uprising  of  the  people  of  Cabul, 
and  from  that  fatal  morning,  all  the  horrors  of  that 


Massacre  at  Cabul.  587 

terrible  storm  burst  upon  the  defenceless  victims, 
Burnes,  with  every  officer,  woman  and  child  found 
with  him  in  the  city,  was  massacred,  the  forces  at 
Jelialabad  were  closely  besieged  with  their  small 
and  ill-provided  garrisons  while  Candahar  and 
Ghazni  were  threatened.  At  this  point  it  was 
arranged  between  the  British  envoy  and  Akbar 
Khan,  that  the  British  army  should  evacuate 
Afghanistan  and  be  guaranteed  safe  passage  to 
India,  and  a  supply  of  provisions.  But  at  the  last 
conference,  while  conversing  with  the  chief,  the 
British  envoy  was  killed  by  a  pistol  shot,  said  to 
have  been  fired  by  the  treacherous  Akbar.  On 
the  6th  of  January,  1842,  the  humiliating  retreat 
began,  and  no  sooner  had  they  cleared  the  city, 
than  parties  of  armed  Afghans  attacked  them  at 
intervals  all  along  the  route,  that  was  tracked  day 
and  night  by  the  dying  and  dead  soldiers.  Such 
was  the  severity  of  the  weather,  and  the  horrible 
suffering  of  the  weary  travellers,  that  "  first  their 
wounded,  and  then  their  women  and  children  were 
given  up  to  the  Afghans  as  the  only  hope  of  saving 
them,  till  finally  giving  up  all  hope  of  escape, 
hundreds  lay  down  to  die  on  the  snow,  or  fell  in 
the  rear  and  were  shot  down  by  Afghan  bullets. 


588  The  English  Power. 

Gradually  the  parties  that  attacked  them  became 
larger,  and  the  work  of  slaughter  sped  more 
rapidly,  until  of  all  that  host  of  twenty-six  thous- 
and who  began  the  disastrous  retreat,  but  one 
Englishman,  Dr.  Brydon  and  a  few  Sesipoys  and 
followers,  escaped  with  the  terrible  tidings  to 
Jellalabad,  where  the  gallant  Sale  still  held  his 
position."* 

Whilst  this  was  occurring  hundreds  of  other 
officers,  women  and  children  were  lingering  out  a 
terrible  captivity  in  Afghan  dungeons,  from  which 
few  lived  to  escape.  The  troops  of  Akbar  contin- 
ued to  harass  every  port  where  there  were  English 
in  possession.  Candahar  and  Jellalabad  held  out 
until  relief  came,  but  at  Ghazni,  Palmer  had  to 
yield,  and  every  man,  woman  and  child  was 
butchered  in  cold  blood.  It  was  August  before 
any  combined  movement  of  English  troops  could 
be  made  to  rescue  the  captives ;  and  then  the 
Khoord  and  Kyber  Passes  had  to  be  passed  before 
safety  could  be  assured.  When  the  last  dangers 
were  over,  and  those  who  yet  lived  had  been 
rescued,  a  terrible  vengeance  was  taken  on  the 
Afghans,  by  the  now  victorious  troops,  sent  to  the 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


Vengeance  and  Peace.  589 

help  of  their  unfortunate  countrymen ;  thousands 
of  skeletons  were  gathered  up  from  the  roads  liter- 
ally strewed  with  these  sad  memorials ;  and  the 
citadel,  forts  and  every  building  of  any  strength 
in  the  capital  were  destroyed  ere  the  army  again 
crossed  the  Indus,  on  their  homeward  march. 

The  winter  of  1843,  was  marked  by  fresh  re- 
volts on  the  part  of  the  Ameers  of  Scinde.  An 
expedition  commanded  by  Sir  Charles  Napier  was 
sent  against  them,  and  after  most  desperate  fight- 
ing, they  were  subdued,  and  their  territory  annexed 
to  the  company's  territories. 

Lord  Auckland  had  meantime  been  recalled, 
and  Lord  Ellenborough  sent  out  in  his  place ;  and 
it  was  under  his  vigorous  management  that  the 
Afghan  disasters  were  in  a  measure  retrieved,  and 
subsequent  victories  gained,  not  the  least  of  which 
was  the  pacification  of  Gwalior,  and  the  permanent 
occupation  of  its  grand  old  fortress. 

In  the  Punjaub,  new  conquests  awaited  the 
British  arms,  not  achieved  however,  without 
large  expenditures  of  blood  and  treasure.  A  more 
complete  and  effectual  overthrow,  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  conceive,  than  that  which,  on  the  21st  of 
February,  1849,  was  meted  out  to  the  Seikh  force 


590  The  English  Power. 

before  Guzerat.  For  three  hours  the  deadly  fire 
of  artillery  did  its  work,  and  then  the  whole  force 
of  the  British  infantry  and  cavalry  being  let  loose 
upon  the  enemy,  the  bayonet,  lance,  and  sword 
accomplished  the  rest  of  the  bloody  task.  The 
principal  chiefs  made  an  unconditional  surrender, 
the  Afghans  fled  across  the  Indus,  the  Seikh  forces 
were  disbanded,  and  the  Punjaub  was  declared  "  an- 
nexed to  the  British  territories  of  India." 

When,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Burmese 
war  before  spoken  of,  peace  was  again  established,  in 
1853  other  changes  were  made  in  the  company's 
charter.  The  number  of  directors  chosen  by  the 
stock-holders  was  reduced  to  twelve,  in  addition  to 
whom  six  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  crown,  who 
must  have  resided  at  least  ten  years  in  India. 
They  were  no  longer  to  hold  the  civil  patronage  of 
the  court,  and  nominations  to  the  Indian  civil 
service,  were  thrown  open  to  competition.  The 
local  government  of  Bengal  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  lieutenant-governor  ;  and  the  Legis- 
lative Council  was  separated  from  the  Supreme 
Council,  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  both. 

In  1856,  Lord  Dalhousie  retired  from  the  guber- 
natorial office.  Among  the  benefits  of  Lord  Dalhou- 


Dalhousies  Administration.  593 

sie's  brilliant  administration,  should  be  mentioned 
the  introduction  of  the  uniform,  low-rate  postage 
throughout  the  vast  empire,  and  the  opening  of 
several  new  lines  of  railway  —  one  line  of  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  miles,  from  Calcutta  to  Rane- 
gunge*,  a  second  line  from  Bombay  to  Wasindra,  of 
fifty-one  miles,  and  a  third  of  fifty  miles  in  the 
Madras  Presidency,  were  all  monuments  of  the 
wise  policy  of  an  able  administrator.  But  the 
crowning  glory  that  reflects  most  honor  on  a  noble 
name,  was  the  opening,  on  the  8th  of  April,  1854, 
of  the  main  stream  of  the  Ganges  canal,  for  a 
distance  of  five  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  which 
subsequently,  when  completed,  reached  a  .total 
length,  including  the  branches,  of  about  nine  hun- 
dred miles,  irrigating  an  area  of  one  million  four 
hundred  and  seventy  thousand  acres ;  and  crown- 
ing with  the  richest  verdure,  whole  tracts  of  other- 
wise barren  and  worthless  land.  After  eight  years 
triumph  in  war,  and  the  exercise  of  enlightened 
statesmanship,  he  handed  over  to  his  successor, 
Viscount  Canning,  an  immense  empire,  in  the  en- 
joyment of  external  peace,  and  internal  prosperity. 
H.  I.— 38 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE     SEAPOY     REBELLION  —  INDIA     OF     THE 
PRESENT. 

IT  was  in  the  year  1746,  that  native  troops  were 
first  trained  to  European  tactics,  by  the 
French,  at  the  siege  of  Cudalore.  The  English 
Seapoy  Service  was  begun  in  1757,  being  just  a 
century  old  at  the  time  of  the  great  rebellion. 
After  the  "  Black  Hole "  tragedy  had  been 
avenged,  and  peace  was  again  restored,  the  first 
battalion  of  Bengal  Seapoys  was  raised,  their  offi- 
cers being  supplied  from  a  detachment  that  had 
accompanied  Lord  Clive  from  Madras.  Upon  the 
foundation  then  laid,  the  vast  superstructure  ot 
the  existing  native  army  of  India,  has  been  grad- 
ually raised,  and  the  system  perfected  by  officers, 
who  have  led  these  armies  from  triumph  to  triumph 

594 


The  Stapoy  Service.  597 

until  the  British  flag  floats  victoriously  over  the 
strongholds  of  the  most  powerful  native  princes  of 
India.  Thus  England  governs  India  with  Hindu 
soldiers;  and  subdues  new  provinces  with  levies 
on  those  already  united  to  the  empire.  And  the 
Hindu  fights  bravely  beside  the  Briton,  laying 
down  his  life  to  increase  the  power  of  the  flag 
under  which  he  has  enlisted.  On  the  military 
parade  grounds,  the  manoeuvres  of  the  native 
troops  show  great  aptitude  in  learning  the  tactics 
of  the  service ;  and  freshly-arrived  cadets  who  are 
hereafter  to  serve  as  officers  in  the  army  of  India, 
are  often  drilled  by  grave,  dignified,  and  noble- 
looking  native  Subahdars. 

In  the  Seapoy  Service,  each  battalion  has  one 
European  commanding  officer,  with  lieutenants 
and  ensigns,  who  act  as  field  officers,  besides  a 
native  commander  and  adjutant,  one  Subahdanind 
three  Jemidars  to  each  company.  A  company  is 
composed  of  seventy  Seapoys,  under  the  direction 
of  five  Havildars  and  four  Naiks  ;  two  drummers 
and  one  trumpeter  being  supplied  to  each  company, 
who  also  carry  colors  bearing  the  device  of  the 
Subahdar. 

An  unfortunate   recognition  of  the  privileges  of 


598  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

caste,  by  the  Anglo-Indian  Government,  in  the 
outset,  gave  rise  at  a  later  period,  to  many  evils 
and  inconveniences.  Instead  of  an  equality  of 
wages  and  perquisites  to  all  native  officers  and 
soldiers  of  the  same  grade  in  the  army,  the 
Brahmin  Seapoy,  because  he  belongs  to  a  class 
that  claims  superiority,  and  with  whom  the  mili- 
tary profession  is  second  in  honor  only  to  that  of  a 
priest,  has  from  the  beginning  of  the  Seapoy  ser- 
vice, been  allowed  higher  pay,  and  many  more 
comforts  and  immunities  than  the  farmer  or 
mechanic.  Both  in  field  and  cantonment,  he  has 
been  treated  by  his  English  employer,  not  only  as 
equal,  but  in  many  respects  as  the  superior  of  the 
European  soldier  in  the  same  service.  Frequent 
furloughs  on  high  days  and  festivals  were  allowed 
them  ;  and  the  fear  of  interfering  with  their  relig- 
ious scruples,  has  led  to  concessions  and  indulgen- 
ces that  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  matters  of 
right,  to  the  serious  obstruction  of  military  duty, 
and  the  too  lax  enforcement  of  proper  discipline. 
Instead  of  being  taught  that  prominence  and  pro- 
motion were  due  to  superior  ability  and  soldierlj- 
qualities,  they  were  allowed  to  claim  them  by 
seniority  and  the  absurd  distinctions  of  caste. 


Caste  the  Cause  of  the  Rebellion.  601 

Thus  they  retained  the  power  of  dictation  in  their 
own  hands,  and  escaped  many  of  the  hardships  of 
the  service.  Officei-s  in  charge  of  companies  had 
little  power  to  reward  or  punish  their  own  men, 
some  caste  regulation  being  always  the  outcry, 
when  a  point  was  to  be  gained.  In  cases  of  mu- 
tiny, though  the  cause  might  occasionally  be  a 
question  of  pay  or  provisions  ;  by  far  the  most 
frequent  and  formidable  ground  of  complaint  has 
been  a  suspicion  of  meditated  interference  with 
the  privileges  of  caste. 

Among  the  immediate  causes  of  the  great  rebell- 
ion,* this  stands  forth  as  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  all,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  cartridges, 
where  the  Brahmins  were  informed  by  one  who 
professed  to  have  heard  it  at  headquarters,  that 
"presently,  Brahmins  as  well  as  Soudras  would 
have  to  bite  cartridges  covered  with  the  fat  of 
cows  and  pigs "  —  the  former  the  most  sacred  of 
all  animals,  the  latter  an  object  of  hatred  and 
abhorrence  to  the  Hindu,  neither  of  which  he 
may  taste  or  handle,  without  loss  of  caste.  In 
this  case,  intelligence  of  the  facts,  fortunately 

*See  British  India,  an  article  by  Charles  Creighton  Hazwell  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly  for  November,  1857,  and  The  Indian  Revolt,  an  article  in  the  same 
magazine  for  December  1857  by  Mr  Charles  Eliot  Norton. 


602  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  European  officer  in 
command,  who  immediately  had  all  the  native 
troops  paraded  before  him,  and  asked  if  they  had 
any  complaint  to  make.  Promptly  and  respect- 
fully, all  the  native  officers,  and  many  of  the  men 
stepped  to  the  front,  and  through  one  of  their 
number,  stated  their  fears,  and  begged  that  some 
substitute  should  be  used  in  making  up  the  car- 
tridges, by  which  their  loss  of  caste  would  not  be 
hazarded.  The  matter  was  at  once  reported  to 
General  Hearsey,  and  the  desired  concession  made 
by  order  of  government.  Unobjectionable  ingredi- 
ents for  greasing  the  cartridges  were  obtained  from 
the  bazaar,  and  the  men  were  allowed  to  make 
them  up  in  their  own  quarters,  that  they  might  be 
satisfied  there  was  no  desire  on  the  part  of  their 
officers  to  interfere  with  their  faith  or  practice.  It 
is  a  note-worthy  fact,  that  during  the  entire  rebell- 
ion, this  regiment  gave  their  officers  no  trouble, 
but  remained  true  to  the  end,  to  the  flag  under 
which  they  had  enlisted. 

Another  of  the  immediate  causes  of  the  mutiny, 
was  undoubtedly,  the  action  taken  with  regard  to 
the  titular  dignity  of  the  royal  House  of  Delhi. 
On  the  death  of  the  heir-apparent  in  1849,  the 


The  Dynasty  of  Timour.  603 

Court  of  Directors  had  authorized  Lord  Dalhonsie 
to  "  terminate  the  dynasty  of  Timour,  whenever 
the  reigning  king  should  die."  To  alleviate  the 
unpleasantness  of  this,  the  Governor  had  ventured 
on  a  compromise  agreeing  to  recognize  the  king's 
grandson,  as  heir-apparent,  on  condition  that  the 
family  should  quit  the  fortress  of  Delhi,  for  the 
royal  palace  of  Kootub.  The  royal  household 
were  powerless  to  dispute  the  point ;  but  they  felt 
sorely  humiliated  ;  and  for  many  a  day,  the  "  in- 
sult "  was  brooded  over  by  the  Delhi  Moham- 
medans, who  were  ready,  at  the  first  outbreak  to 
avenge  their  grievance  by  joining  the  malcontents. 
Among  the  remote  causes  of  the  mutiny,  was  the 
vague  impression  cherished  alike  by  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans,  that  ultimately  the  system  of 
castes  was  to  be  abolished,  and  a  foreign  religion 
to  be  forced  upon  all  the  races  of  the  empire. 
Coexistent  with  this,  was  the  very  natural  aversion 
the  people  of  this  ancient  empire  entertained  to 
being  ruled  over  by  a  race  of  foreigners  for  whom 
they  had  no  special  liking,  and  of  whom  the}r  had 
not  even  heard,  until  within  a  few  hundred  years. 
On  these  several  points,  the  races  of  India  were 
sufficiently  of  one  mind  to  be  mutual  helpers 


604  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

when  the  day  of  trouble  came,  and  to  join  shoulder 
to  shoulder  in  a  mighty  effort  to  expel  the  foreign 
intruders  from  the  entire  peninsula. 

The  first  positive  outbreak  began  at  Berhampore 
in  the  district  of  Moorshedabad,  about  a  hundred 
miles  from  Calcutta,  on  the  25th  of  February, 
1857,  by  a  portion  of  the  19th  native  regiment 
who  refused  to  accept  the  objectionable  cartridges, 
and  afterwards  declined  to  lay  down  their  arms 
when  ordered  to  do  so,  until  certain  conditions  of 
their  own  had  been  complied  with. 

The  spirit  of  mutiny  made  its  next  appearance 
in  Viziana^ram  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  where 

o  •/  * 

on  the  28th  of  February,  the  1st  Madras  Regiment 
was  under  orders  to  march  for  Kurnool,  without 
their  families.  This,  the  men  positively  refused  to 
do ;  and  when  their  colonel  ventured  to  remon- 
strate, he  was  met  by  shouts  of  defiance  and  ridi- 
cule. There  being  no  force  at  hand  to  compel 
obedience  the  point  was  yielded  ;  probably  render- 
ing it  thereby,  more  difficult  to  subdue  the  next 
revolt.  On  the  morning  of  the  31st  of  March  the 
19th  Regiment  was  disbanded,  and  the  men 
marched  to  Chinsura  and  there  ordered  to  disperse 
which  they  did  with  sullen  and  defiant  air,  to 


Another  G-rievance.  605 

scatter  far  and  wide,  the  germs  of  treason  and  re- 
volt. The  disbanding  of  a  regiment,  is  in  India  a 
very  weighty  penalty,  since  every  officer  thereby 
looses  his  position,  and  every  Seapoy  his  pension  ; 
and  as  recruits  for  the  Indian  army  are  not  re- 
ceived after  a  certain  age,  those  who  have  attained 
it,  or  are  Brahmins  of  high  caste  are  deprived  of 
the  means  of  earning  a  livelihood,  as  they  have  no 
choice  of  labor  but  to  remain  soldiers.  In  April, 
indications  of  revolt  began  to  appear  in  Lucknow, 
the  capital  of  Oudh  :  where,  in  addition  to  the 
cartridge  trouble  the  Seapoys  had  a  private  griev- 
ance of  their  own.  An  English  physician,  wishing 
to  be  sure  that  the  medicine  he  had  prescribed  for 
a  Brahmin  patient,  was  properly  prepared,  put  the 
bottle  to  his  own  lips  to  taste  the  mixture  before 
handing  it  over  to  the  sick  man.  This  kindly- 
meant  action  was  construed  into  an  attempt  to 
break  down  the  distinctive  barriers  of  caste,  and 
was  repaid  by  the  immediate  burning  down  of  the 
doctor's  bungalow,  by  the  Seapoys  of  the  regiment. 
Nightly  meetings  took  place,  the  men  looked  dark 
and  defiant,  and  conflagrations  were  becoming  very 
frequent.  At  this  juncture,  the  British  Resident, 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  telegraphed  the  governor' 


606  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

general,  "  I  want  unlimited  powers  ;  I  will  not 
abuse  them  ; "  and  in  five  minutes  he  received  the 
desired  grant.  This  power  he  used  in  promptly 
putting  down  such  mutinous  demonstrations  as 
had  been  made,  and  order  was  quickly  restored 
without  violence  on  either  side,  after  which,  great 
pains  was  taken  by  Sir  Henry  to  remove  all  cause 
of  discontent,  by  explanations  and  conciliatory 
treatment. 

At  Meerut  in  the  Doab,  the  manifestations  were 
of  the  most  threatening  character.  The  Bombay 
Times  of  the  first  week  in  May,  represented  the 
whole  country,  from  Calcutta  to  Lahore,  as  "  either 
in  open  mutiny,  or  upon  the  verge  of  it."  A  plan 
was  discovered  for  the  simultaneous  uprising  of 
Meerut,  Lahore,  and  other  cities  of  the  Punjaub, 
after  which  the  rebels  were  to  fall  back  upon 
Delhi,  and  make  it  the  base  of  operations  in  the 
Hindu  empire,  which  was  to  be  there  established, 
by  the  utter  extermination  of  the  whole  European 
army  and  population  throughout  India.  This 
barbarous  programme  failed  in  part,  from  a  lack 
of  reciprocity  among  the  leaders  :  but  enough  was 
carried  out  to  render  one  speechless  with  horror. 
Infants  were  snatched  from  their  mothers'  arms 


Butchery  at  Delhi.  609 

and  murdered  before  their  eyes.  Older  children 
were  compelled  to  look  on  while  one  or  both  par- 
ents were  cruelly  butchered,  and  in  some  instances 
were  made  to  drink  their  blood ;  neither  age,  sex 
nor  condition  was  spared,  soldiers  and  civilians 
shared  the  same  fate  ;  and  only  when  the  curtains 
of  night  closed  around  those  scenes  of  terror  and 
of  blood,  did  the  fearful  tragedy  cease  —  to  be 
recommenced  on  the  coming  day,  in  the  neighbor- 
ing city  of  Delhi,  where  by  a  forced  march  of 
more  than  thirty  miles,  the  mutineers  arrived  by 
8  A.  M.  Monday,  May  the  llth. 

Delhi  being  garrisoned  only  by  native  troops, 
the  mutineers  from  Meerut,  found  ready  sympathy. 
Several  of  the  officers  were  killed  while  seeking 
to  restrain  their  men  from  taking  part  in  the 
scenes  of  blood ;  and  soon  the  whole  native  force 
of  the  city  was  engaged  in  murdering  the 
European  residents.  Some  sought  the  citadel, 
brought  forth  the  king,  and  after  representing  to 
him  that  the  whole  country  was  in  revolt,  and  the 
hated  foreigners  to  be  driven  from  the  kingdom  or 
thrown  into  the  sea,  insisted  on  proclaiming 
him  emperor,  and  after  firing  a  salute  of  twenty- 
one  guns,  rushed  from  the  palace  gates,  to 
39 


610  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

carry  out  their  plans  of  treachery  and  blood. 
Captain  Douglass,  the  commandant  of  the  guard 
of  the  titular  king,  was  the  first  victim  ;  the  Chap- 
lain of  the  Residency  and  his  Iqvely  young  daugh- 
ter of  nineteen,  the  next,  with  such  aggravation  of 
suffering  as  cannot  here  be  detailed ;  and  others, 
men,  women  and  children  were  slaughtered  by 
wholesale.  The  whole  city  was  now  in  arms  ;  and 
every  house  in  which  it  was  thought  a  European 
had  resided,  was  ransacked  from  cellar  to  garret. 
The  purpose  of  the  soldiers  was  murder,  that  of 
the  rabble,  plunder;  nor  did  the  houses  and  shops 
of  wealthy  natives  escape,  many  of  these  being 
sacrificed  by  the  blood-thirsty  mob,  without  appar- 
ent reason,  while  they  were  glutting  their  fierce 
hatred  of  the  foreigners.  They  next  plundered 
the  government  treasuries,  destroyed  the  English 
church,  and  utterly  demolished  the  premises  of 
the  Delhi  Gazette,  throwing  the  presses  into  the 
river,  and  melting  the  type  into  slugs.  The  em- 
ployees of  the  office,  attempted  to  escape  in  the 
disguise  of  natives,  but  being  detected,  they 
were  literally  hacked  to  pieces.  Next  to 
their  thirst  for  blood,  was  the  desire  to  possess 
themselves  of  the  treasure  deposited  in  the  Delhi 


Pandemonium.  611 

Bank. ,  The  manager  in  charge,  Mr.  Beresford, 
with  his  wife  and  five  children  had  their  throats 
severed  and  mangled  with  broken  glass.  No 
mercy  was  shown  to  age  or  sex.  Delicate  women, 
mothers  and  young  daughters  were  stripped  of 
their  clothing,  wantonly  abused,  and  turned  naked 
into  the  streets,  beaten  with  canes,  pelted  with 
filth,  and  abandoned  to  the  beastly  lusts  of  the 
rabble,  until  death  or  madness  ended  their  misery. 
A  party  consisting  of  eight  gentlemen,  eight 
ladies,  and  eleven  children,  had  found  a  temporary 
refuge  in  a  mosque  ;  but  being  without  food  and 
and  water,  they  gave  themselves  up,  and  were 
promised  safety.  But  instead,  they  were  placed  in 
a  row,  and  all  shot.  One  lady  entreated  a  Seapoy 
to  give  her  child  some  water,  though  they  killed 
her.  For  answer  to  the  poor  mother's  appeal, 
the  wretch  snatched  the  child  from  her  arms,  and 
dashed  out  its  brains  on  the  pavement,  before  her 
face.  Such  was  the  demoniac  fury  of  the  excited 
mob,  that  "  before  noon  of  Monday,  the  llth  of 
May,  the  interior  of  Delhi  was  a  pandemonium 
that  fiends  might  have  shuddered  to  contemplate." 
Every  effort  was  made  to  save  the  magazine,  but 

*  Malcolm's  "  Indian  Mutiny." 


612  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

without  avail.  A  little  garrison  of  seven  brave 
men,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Willoughby,  made 
a  gallant  defence,  till  finding  that  the  enormous 
quantities  of  ammunition  and  stores  must  inevita- 
bly fall  into  the  enemies'  hands,  the  building  was 
blown  up,  by  these  magnanimous  defenders,  who 
all,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  Lieutenant 
Willoughby  perished  in  the  explosion  ;  while  from 
one  thousand  five  hundred  to  two  thousand  of  the 
mutineers  and  rabble  are  believed  to  have  been 
blown  up  with  the  magazine,  or  crushed  in  the 
fallings  ruins.  This  so  exasperated  the  great  army 
of  mutineers,  who  had  been  eagerly  hoping  to  get 
possession  of  the  stores  and  ammunition,  that 
several  of  the  leaders,  rushed  to  the  palace,  and 
demanded  of  the  king,  the  immediate  surrender  of  all 
the  Europeans,  who  under  his  promise  of  protec- 
tion, had  taken  refuge  there.  The  timid  and  vas- 
cillating  monarch  durst  not  refuse,  and  these  un- 
fortunate victims  of  royal  perfidy,  were  murdered 
in  cold  blood, 

Similar  scenes  to  those  just  described  were  en- 
acted at  various  other  points.  From  Ferozepore  to 
the  Deccan,  the  country  was  ripe  witli  revolt ;  at 
Baroach,  the  Parsees,  a  quiet,  energetic,  kindly 


Wholesale  Murder.  615 

race,  were  the  special  objects  of  vengeance.  Their 
high  priest  was  murdered  at  the  altar,  their  fine 
temple  desecrated,  their  women  insulted,  and  peo- 
ple of  all  grades  cruelly  butchered ;  at  Allahabad, 
the  carnage  was  frightful,  attended  in  many  in- 
stances by  the  most  fiendish  cruelty ;  one  family 
consisting  of  three  generations  was  burned  to 
death,  not  one  being  spared,  from  the  hoary  grand- 
sire  to  the  prattling  infant ;  noses,  lips,  ears,  fingers 
and  toes  of  men  and  women  were  slowly  chopped 
off,  and  the  bodies  deliberately  dashed  to  death ; 
while  little  infants  were  torn  from  their  mothers' 
arms,  and  their  tender  limbs  chopped  off  with 
tulwars  yet  reeking  with  their  father's  blood.  More 
that  fifty  Europeans  were  murdered  in  the  first 
outbreak ;  and  a  merciless  death  was  the  least  of 
the  cruelties  practiced  on  many  of  the  female 
victims. 

At  Jhansie,  the  wholesale  murder  was  attended 
by  many  scenes  of  frightful  and  most  revolting 
cruelty ;  Lucknow,  Agra,  other  cities  shared  a  like 
fate ;  while  at  Cawnpore  only  the  women  and 
children  of  all  the  garrison  survived  the  frightful 
massacre  ;  and  these  were  all  foully  murdered  by 
the  cruel  tyrant,  Nana  Sahib,  the  day  before  General 


616  The    Seapoy    Rebellion. 

Havelock  reached  the  city,  and   their  bodies,  the 
dead  and  dying,  flung  into  a  well  in  the  courtyard 
of    the   assembly   rooms.     But  enough    has    been 
written   of    these    horrible   details   of   blood    and 
agony,  and  death.     At  fir  t,  the   uprising  was  so 
sudden  and  general,  and  the  horror  felt  at  the  enormi- 
ties committed,  so  completely  paralyzing,  that  little 
could  be  done  towards  quelling  the   great  revolt, 
while  each  day  added  to  the  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers of  the  position.     Then  from  every  place  came 
sympathy  and  aid  for  the  sufferers,  with  vows  of  ter- 
rible vengeance.    The  Governor  General  dispatched 
a  vessel  to  Ceylon  to  intercept  the  troops  that  had 
been  ordered  to  China,  in  support  of  Lord  Elgin's 
mission.     At  Lucknow,  Sir    Henry   Lawrence   at- 
tacked and  defeated  a  large  body  of  the  mutineers; 
but   was   soon   after   besieged    in   the    residency, 
which  he  gallantly  defended  against  overwhelming 
numbers,  until  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  rally, 
and  the  hero.ic  little  band  had  to  retire  to  a  smaller 
post.     In  England,   men    and  money  and    stores 
were  volunteered  on  all  sides,  to  meet  this  terrible 
emergency.     By  the  middle  of  October,  £150,000 
had  been  subscribed  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  , 
and  within  three   months   after   the  news   of  the 


England  Alarmed.  617 

Meerut  revolt  first  reached  England,  more  than 
thirty  thousand  excellent  troops  had  already  left 
the  British  shores  ;  and  regiment  after  regiment 
continued  to  be  dispatched  in  the  same  direction. 
Within  forty-eight  hours  after  the  announcement 
of  General  Anson's  death,  Sir  Collin  Campbell 
was  on  his  way  to  assume  the  chief  command  ;  but 
even  before  he  had  reached  the  field,  victory  was 
already  beginning  to  declare  in  favor  of  the  Eng- 
lish. General  Havelock,  taking  command  of  sev- 
eral regiments  at  Allahabad,  set  out  with  all  speed 
hoping  to  reach  Cavvnpore,  in  time  to  rescue  Sir 
Hugh  Wheeler,  and  his  brave  companions.  But 
after  marching  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  miles, 
fighting  four  actions,  and  capturing  many  guns,  in 
eight  days  in  the  worst  season  of  that  Indian  cli- 
mate, he  was  yet  too  late  to  avert  the  terrible 
catastrophe.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  he  for 
the  eighth  time  defeated  the  enemy,  and  captured 
his  guns  ;  and  the  15th  of  August  he  marched  out 
from  Cawnpore,  and  again  drove  them  from  Bhitoor. 
On  the  19th  of  September,  he  marched  with  a 
large  reinforcement,  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  and 
on  the  21st  occurred  the  great  battle  of  Mungarwar, 
resulting  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  rebels. 


618  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

Delhi  was  taken  in  September,  and  occupied, 
this  being  regarded  as  a  virtual  closing  of  the  re- 
bellion ;  but  many  a  hard  fought  battle  had  yet  to 
be  lost  and  won,  ere  permanent  peace  again  spread 
its  balmy  wings  over  this  distracted  country. 

In  November,  a  vigorous  attack  was  made  by 
Sir  Collin  Campbell,  on  Lucknovv,  and  after  sev- 
eral brilliant  victories,  by  dint  of  a  well  executed 
ruse  on  the  night  of  the  22d  he  silently  decamped, 
taking  with  him  his  whole  force,  the  relieved  garri- 
son, a  thousand  women  and  children,  and  all  valua- 
ble stores. 

On  the  3d  of  February  1858,  Fort  Sawyer  on 
the  Nerbudda,  was  relieved  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose. 
Here  four  hundred  Europeans,  of  whom  nearly 
half  were  women  and  children,  had  been  shut  up 
for  seven  months.  On  the  17th  the  almost  impreg- 
nable stronghold  of  Rhotosgur  was  captured ;  on 
the  19th  of  March  the  last  post  of  the  mutineers 
in  Lucknow  fell  before  the  English;  the  conquest 
of  Jhansie  followed  in  April,  and  other  victories 
and  successes  soon  after,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  year,  this  terrible  mutiny  was  over. 

Quite  in  contrast  with  the  scenes  we  have  been 
describing,  was  the  brilliant  reception  of  the  Prince 


The  Prince  of  Wales.  621 

of  Wales  in  his  recent  tour  over  this  same  ground, 
during  the  years  of  1875-'76  ;  and  the  cordial 
affection  and  loyalty  every  where  manifested  toward 
him,  throughout  the  Indian  Empire. 

Yet  the  same  races,  many  of  the  same  people, 
were  actors  in  both  ;  with  the  interval  of  only 
about  seventeen  years  between  the  two  events. 
But  the}'  have  been  years  of  growth  to  the  rulers 
and  the  ruled ;  in  which  both  have  learned  to  un- 
derstand each  other  better,  and  the  relative  position 
and  acquirements  of  the  two  countries,  and  their 
respective  inhabitants.  Both  probably  learned  wis- 
dom by  the  sad  experiences  of  those  troublous 
years  of  war  and  bloody  reprisal,  and  the  later 
years  of  comparative  tranquillity  and  prosperity,  as 
contrasted  with  the  former,  have  surely  inculcated 
the  lesson  that  peace  is  better  than  war. 

Yet  in  the  autumn  of  1878,  and  during  the  early 
months  of  the  year  1880,  another  war  cloud 
darkened  the  Indian  horizon.  The  English  mind, 
always  keenly  susceptible  of  alarm,  in  regard  to 
the  invasion  of  her  Indian  Empire ;  and  subject  to 
what  may  be  called  periodic  visitations  of  fear ; 
has  for  years  past  been  kept  in  a  "  chronic  state  of 
unrest"  by  the  occasional  movements  of  Russia, 


622  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

tending  apparently  toward  the  Indian  frontier. 
Such  was  doubtless  the  origin  of  Lord  Auckland's 
unfortunate  invasion  of  Afghanistan  in  1838,  that 
ended  so  disastrously  for  the  English  colonies  of 
India.  This  same  desire  to  secure  possession  of 
the  Afghan  Passes,  as  a  wall  of  security  against 
Russian  invasion,  led  the  "  British  Mission  to  the 
Ameer's  Court,"  during  the  year  1879.  But  the  Mis- 
sion met  with  a  repulse  —  the  Embassador  be- 
ing prevented  by  force  from  entering  the  coun- 
try ;  and  this  repulse  occasioned  intense  excitement 
throughout  India.  The  Bombay  Times  of  that 
period,  reports  a  special  meeting  of  the  Viceroy's 
Council,  held  at  Simla,  and  also  that  General  Rob- 
erts had  started  for  Peshawur,  with  secret  orders.  A 
large  force  was  ordered  to  be  in  readiness  on  the 
frontier,  where  twelve  thousand  men  had  been 
already  massed. 

The  Times  of  India  of  September  25th  said: 
"  The  Mission  to  Cabul  has  already  become  trans- 
formed into  an  expedition,  or,  as  it  would  seem, 
into  three  expeditions,  which  will  start  from  differ- 
ent bases.  One  column,  variously  estimated  at 
six  thousand  to  eight  thousand  men,  is  to  assemble 
at  Moulton.  All  these  except  one  regiment  are 


M 


The  Afghan   Campaign.  625 

Europeans.  They  assemble  at  Moultau,  lor  the 
purpose  of  marching  right  across  to  Quetta,  and 
consternating  [szc]  Shere  Ali,  in  the  south.  Another 
column  of  six  thousand  is  being  assembled  in  tho 
Koorum  Valley,  and  will  be  moved  to  Kohat 
General  Roberts  himself  is  in  command  of  thL 
column,  which  is  obviously  intended  to  march 
through  the  Kohat  Pass,  and  turn  the  flank  of  the 
Khyber  Pass,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  entrance, 
through  that  dangerous  channel,  of  a  third  column, 
which  appears  to  be  in  active  preparation.  In  this 
way,  in  a  few  days  —  indeed  we  are  told,  the 
troops  are  expected  to  march  in  three  days  time- — 
the  three  important  passes  of  Bolan,  Kohut,  and 
Khyber  will  be  occupied,  and  this  summary  measr 
ure  may  not  improbably,  bring  the  Ameer  to  his 
senses." 

A  proclamation  of  the  Viceroy  of  India  re- 
counts the  history  of  the  relations  between  India 
and  Afghanistan,  during  these  last  ten  years.  It 
says:  "In  return  for  the  kindness  of  our  acts 
and  intentions,  as  witnessed  by  the  Ameer's  recep- 
tion at  Uinballa,  by  the  material  aid  we  afforded 
to  him  from  time  to  time,  and  by  the  free  commerce 

with   India,  accorded  to  the  Afghans,  we  gained 
H.  I.— 40 


626  The  Seapoy  Rebellion. 

only  ill-will  and  discourtesy.  The  Ameer  openly 
and  assiduously  attempted,  by  words  and  deeds, 
to  stir  up  religious  hatred,  and  bring  about  a  war 
upon  the  British  Empire  in  India,  and  although  he 
had  repelled  all  efforts  for  amicable  intercourse  by 
the  Indian  Government,  he  formally  received  a 
Russian  Embassy,  and  finally,  while  the  Russian 
Mission  was  still  at  Cabul,  he  forcibly  repulsed  the 
English  envoy,  whose  coming  had  been  duly  noti- 
fied to  him,  and  met  our  attempts  to  promote 
friendly  relations,  with  open  indignity  and  defiance. 

It  looks  somewhat  significant  that  the  Russian 
Czar,  through  General  Kaufman,  should,  just  at  this 
juncture,  present  the  Ameer  with  a  costly  sword,  on 
the  blade  of  which  is  the  following  inscription,  in 
the  Persian  tongue  :  "  May  God  give  the  victory 
over  the  infidels." 

The  advance  of  the  Britisli  army  in  Afghanistan, 
was  steady  and  successful.  Shere  Ali,  the  Afghan 
Ameer,  fled  from  the  country;  leaving  his  son 
Yakoob  Khan,  in  control  of  the  government.  Pre- 
vious to  this,  during  the  month  of  November,  the 
British  ultimatum  requiring  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Russian  Embassy,  and  that  the  Ameer  enters  into 
no  Russian  alliance — was  handed  to  the  Afghan 


Terms  of  Peace.  627 

commander  at  All  Musjid,  and  a  copy  was  sent  by 
post,  to  the  Ameer.  In  reply,  the  Ameer  declared 
himself  bound  by  no  Russian  alliance,  and  that  he 
was  at  liberty  to  make  any  new  treaty  he  might 
find  desirable. 

The  British  victories  Avere  so  dedided  that 
Yakoob  Khan  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  and  to 
acceptiton  the  Viceroy's  own  terms,  i.  e.  Jellalabad 
and  Candahar  were  to  be  evacuated,  and  given 
back  to  the  Afghans  ;  the  famous  Khyber  Pass  to 
become  an  Anglo-Indian  out-post ;  the  Khurmur 
and  Khost  Valleys  to  be  converted  into  Indian- 
graneries;  and  an  intrenched  camp  to  be  estab- 
lished within  four  days  march  of  the  Ameer's  cap- 
ital ;  while  the  main  gateway  in  the  mountains, 
between  Quettah  and  Candahar,  was  to  be  fortified 
and  garrisoned.  These  accessions  of  territory  af- 
ford satisfactory  evidence  that  this  well  planned 
and  boldly  executed  campaign  was  not  in  vain ; 
the  conquerors  having  made  peace  on  their  own 
terms,  and  accomplished  all  they  sought  to  do. 
The  Russian  intrigue  at  Cabul  has  been  brought  to 
naught ;  while  Great  Britain  has  acquired  increased 

prestige  as  an  Oriental  Power,  besides  having  had 
ascendency  restored  in  the  neutral  zone,  between 


628  India  of  the  Present 

India  and  Turkistan  as  a  "  scientific  frontier,"  probably, 
not  unacceptable,  even  to  Lord  Beaconsfield. 

The  year  1880  saw  the  close  of  the  war  and  the  acces- 
sion to  power  of  a  new  liberal  ministry,  pledged  to  aban- 
don the  aggressive  policy  in  Afghanistan,  instituted  by 
Lord  Lytton.  On  hearing  the  results  of  the  elections  in 
Great  Britain,  Lord  Lytton  sent  in  his  resignation,  leav- 
ing behind  him  memories  of  an  administration  notable 
for  several  measures  not  altogether  satisfactory  to  the  na- 
tives, at  least.  In  March,  1878,  he  had  forced  through 
the  Legislative  Council  an  act  which  placed  vernacular 
papers  under  rigorous  censorship,  and  he  also  incurred  a 
heavy  debt  for  which  there  was  no  good  reason.  During 
his  rule,  however,  many  beneficent  measures  were  enacted. 
One  of  the  best  was  the  act  of  1879,  by  which  the  peas- 
antry of  Southern  India  was  protected  from  the  pitiless 
oppression  of  money  lenders,  and  the  unjust  decisions  of 
the  civil  courts.  Thereafter  all  means  of  inquiry  and  ar- 
bitration must  fail  before  the  peasant's  holding  could  be 
absolutely  taken  from  him,  even  for  a  term  of  years,  nor 
could  he  be  imprisoned  for  debt.  In  1879,  also  the  right 
of  natives  to  a  share  in  the  government  of  their  country 
was  acknowledged  by  the  creation  of  a  civil  service  sys- 
tem, the  candidates  for  which  were  to  be  selected  by  the 
local  governments. 

Lord  Lytton  wae  replaced  by  Lord  Ripon,  and  under 


Native  Administration  Restored.  631 

his  wise  administration  India's  progress  was  brisk  and 
peaceful.  Of  the  twenty  millions  which  India  had  ex- 
pended on  the  late  war,  one-fourth  was  repaid  her  from 
the  imperial  treasury;  a  new  impulse  was  imparted  to 
foreign  trade,  a  succession  of  good  seasons  promoted  ag- 
riculture, and  the  government  was  thus  enabled  to  re- 
plenish the  treasuries  without  levying  new  taxes.  Public 
works  were  prosecuted  vigorously  with  every  promise  of 
final  success.  The  railway  system  was  especially  consid- 
ered. New  roads  were  projected,  having  special  refer- 
ence to  the  state  lines  recently  decided  on,  and  some  of 
the  old  roads  began  to  yield  substantial  profit. 

In  March,  1881,  the  state  of  Mysore,  which  for  fifty 
years  had  been  under  British  rule,  was  restored  to  native 
administration,  but  the  young  Maharaja,  who  succeeded 
to  the  sovereignty  with  the  same  powers  as  the  rulers  of 
other  native  states,  was  surrounded  by  English  counsel- 
ors, and  in  matters  of  serious  import  was  expected  to 
defer  to  their  decisions.  During  this  period  the  British 
outposts,  all  the  way  from  Burmah  to  Pishin,  were  being 
constantly  annoyed  by  border  outbreaks,  arid  it  was  at 
last  determined  to  send  a  large  expedition  against  the 
Mahsud  section  of  the  Waziri  tribe,  who  were  the  lead- 
ing cause  of  the  disturbances,  and  who  had  plundered 
Tank  and  other  villages  in  1879. 

An  engagement  took  place  in  May  at  Shahalum,  but 


632  India  of  the  Present 

as  a  skirmishing  resistance  only  was  offered  the  advanc- 
ing columns,  the  chiefs  were  soon  captured  and  easily 
forced  into  submission. 

A  reduction  of  the  salt  duties  in  1882  meant  no  cur- 
tailment of  the  revenue,  while  it  proved  of  immeasurable 
good  to  millions  of  poor  ryots.  In  the  same  year  were 
abolished  the  last  of  the  duties  on  cotton  imports,  as  were 
also  the  import  duties  on  all  articles  except  arms,  alco- 
holic drinks  and  opium.  Of  exports,  rice  alone  contin- 
ued to  pay  duty. 

At  this  time  a  commission  was  appointed  to  look  into 
the  working  of  the  educational  system,  first  organized  in 
1854,  and  the  result  of  the  investigation  was  a  scheme  by 
which  the  state  outlay  on  the  higher  education  was  lim- 
ited, thereby  making  possible  the  improvement  of  the 
primary  and  middle  schools,  which  were  still  in  a  very 
imperfect  condition.  A  radical  change  was  introduced 
in  the  municipal  system  of  India,  having  for  its  aim  the 
training  of  the  people  for  the  management  of  their  local 
affairs.  In  nearly  all  the  provinces  the  municipal  coun- 
cils were  remodeled  on  a  basis  of  popular  election,  and  the 
native  press  was  restored  to  its  former  freedom.  In  his 
desire  to  secure  absolute  justice  for  the  people  he  gov- 
erned, Lord  Ripon  met,  at  least  once,  with  violent  oppo- 
sition from  a  majority  of  his  own  countrymen.  Under 
the  Viceroy's  supervision  a  bill  was  drawn  up  by  Mr.  II- 


Lord  Dufferin's  Administration.  633 

bert,  law  member  of  the  viceregal  council,  which  gave 
to  native  rural  magistrates  jurisdiction  in  all  criminal 
cases  that  came  before  the  district  courts.  The  Euro- 
peans in  India  became  enraged  at  what  they  considered 
an  attempt  to  destroy  their  privileges  as  the  dominant 
race,  and  in  order  to  dissipate  the  violence  Lord  Ripon 
consented  to  several  changes  in  the  bill,  which,  thus  mod- 
ified, became  a  law. 

In  1884,  the  Earl  of  Dufferin  succeeded  Lord  Ripon 
as  Viceroy  of  India,  and  to  his  administration  may  be 
credited  the  development  and  enforcement  of  the  reform 
inaugurated  by  the  rent  law  oi  1859.  The  Bengal  ten- 
ancy act  of  1885,  secured  fixity  of  tenure  and  just  rent 
to  every  ryat  who  had  possession  for  three  years,  and  a 
tenant  of  twelve  years'  standing  was  insured  against 
increase  in  his  rent  on  any  pretext  whatever. 

In  1885,  a  commission,  composed  of  Russian  and  Eng- 
lish officers,  was  appointed  to  clearly  define  the  northern 
frontiers  of  Afghanistan,  and  the  misunderstandings  and 
discussions  which  arose  in  connection  with  this  matter  oc- 
casioned the  wildest  excitement  throughout  Europe  and 
Asia,  especially  in  India.  Wise  statesmanship,  and  the 
Ameer's  peaceful  inclinations,  however,  averted  serious 
entanglements,  and  the  Afghan  frontier  was  decided  on 
without  further  trouble.  The  conquest  and  annexation 
of  Upper  Burmah  were  inevitable.  The  British  Govern- 


634  India  of  the  Present. 

merit  had  long  awaited  an  opportunity  for  making  war 
on  this  kingdom.  Burmah's  trade  with  France  and  It- 
aly had  never  pleased  the  British,  and  on  the  accession 
of  Theebaw,  a  despotic  and  cruel  prince,  in  1878,  the 
British  consul  at  Mandalay  was  withdrawn  on  the 
grounds  of  violence  and  insufferable  eccentricity  on  the 
part  of  the  king.  No  further  move  was  made  by  the 
government  in  India  until  1885.  In  the  fall  of  that  year, 
owing  to  French  intrigue,  it  was  said,  Theebaw  suddenly 
and  peremptorily  imposed  an  additional  burden  on  the 
Bombay  and  British  Trading  company,  which  held  the 
concessions  of  the  teak  forests  in  Burmah.  The  addi- 
tional fine  amounted  to  twenty-three  laks  of  rupees. 

This  radical  step  on  the  part  of  the  Burmese  king  fur- 
nished the  pretext  that  Great  Britain  was  seeking,  and 
led  to  an  ultimatum  couched  in  sharp,  decisive  terms  an- 
nulling the  king's  order.  At  the  same  time  preparations 
were  made  for  war.  Theebaw's  reply  was  evasive  in  ef- 
fect and  defiant  in  tone,  and  determined  the  course  of  the 
British.  Had  any  cause  for  hastening  the  conquest  been 
wanting,  it  was  found  in  the  king's  proclamation  urging 
his  subjects  to  rise  and  repel  the  invaders. 

In  the  early  part  of  November,  1885,  a  force  of  fifteen 
thousand  men  marched  up  the  Irrawaddy  and  attacked 
Mandalay.  They  had  met  but  feeble  resistance  and  en- 
tered the  town  with  little  fighting.  On  November  28, 


The  Burmese  War.  ~  635 

Theebaw  was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  Rangoon.  A 
month  of  unquiet  in  the  kingdom  was  followed  on  Janu- 
ary 1,  1886,  by  the  annexation  of  Burmah  to  the  British 
Empire.  This  was  done  by  the  Viceroy's  proclamation, 
and  was  followed  by  a  publication  of  all  the  Burmese 
correspondence  since  the  accession  of  Theebaw  to  the  date 
of  the  publication.  The  annexation  was  confirmed  by 
vote  of  Parliament,  and  on  March  31,  Mr.  Barnard 
arrived  and  assumed  the  reins  of  government  at  Man- 
dalay. 

The  overthrow  of  the  king  and  the  transition  in  state 
affairs  left  the  country  unsettled.  After  a  month  of  more 
or  less  quiet  the  Burmese,  although  broken,  attempted  to 
harass  their  new  rulers,  and  it  was  only  after  a  severe 
campaign  that  they  were  completely  subjugated.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country  arose  various  pretenders  to  the 
throne,  who,  by  unsystematic  attacks,  tried  to  force  the 
British  to  recognize  their  respective  claims.  These  were 
the  Alaungpra  princes  whose  small  armies  were  a  source 
of  infinite  annoyances  to  the  conquerors.  The  English 
civil  commissioners  were  at  first  successful  in  maintaining 
peace,  but  on  the  appearance  of  the  pretenders  the  na- 
tive officials  gave  the  latter  allegiance,  and  soon  the  Brit- 
ish found  that  the  conquest  had  been  only  nominal.  On 
April  15,  bands  of  men  led  by  the  Nyinzaing  prince,  one 
of  the  pretenders  and  a  brother  of  Theebaw,  fired  Man- 


636  India  of  the  Present. 

dalay  in  four  places,  destroying  the  treasury  and  post 
office  and  threatening  the  palace.  In  August,  the  river 
embankment  at  Mandalay  was  cut  by  the  Dakoitan  reb- 
els and  what  had  not  burned  of  the  town  was  swamped. 
In  October,  the  army  of  occupation  counted  one  thousand 
three  hundred  and  twenty-eight  British  infantry ;  fifteen 
thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty-four  native  infantry ; 
two  thousand  two  hundred  and  seventy-three  native  cav- 
alry, and  nine  hundred  and  ninety-one  artillery. 

Boshway,  a  robber  chief  in  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy, 
was  the  strongest  of  the  insurgents,  next  to  the  Nyinzaing 
prince,  to  whom  numerous  of  the  minor  leaders  gave 
sympathy.  Boshway  attacked  the  naval  launches  on 
the  Sittang  river  and  killed  Englishmen  without  pity. 
Theebaw's  brother,  the  Pretender,  burned  villages 
friendly  to  the  English,  and  in  many  ways  made  his 
power  felt.  Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when  Gen- 
eral Frederick  Roberts  took  command  at  Rangoon,  re- 
placing General  MacPherson,  who  had  just  died  of  fever 
Reinforcements  were  sent  from  India.  Columns  moved 
on  Boshway,  dissipated  his  forces,  and  drove  him  and 
the  remnant  of  his  army  to  the  Arakan  hills.  In  the 
north  a  detachment  was  sent  against  the  Hla-oo  as  soon 
as  the  forces  arrived,  and  his  strength  was  broken  and 
his  forces  scattered  after  numerous  engagements.  The 
Limbin  prince  was  the  last  to  succumb.  His  confeder- 


The  Jubilee  Celebrations.  637 

acy  was  already  breaking  when  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  sent  to  Rangoon. 

The  affairs  of  Burmah  were  now  quiet.  In  two  subse- 
quent skirmishes  with  Boshway,  the  robber  was  utterly 
routed  and  withdrew  from  the  field  even  as  a  marauder. 
British  supremacy  was  now  fixed  in  Burmah,  so  to  re- 
main. On  his  return  to  India,  General  Roberts  was  re- 
ceived with  every  expression  of  satisfaction  from  his  gov- 
ernment. 1887,  the  Jubilee  year,  was  celebrated  with 
extraordinary  manifestations  of  loyalty.  Magnificent 
ceremonials  were  held  at  Calcutta,  presided  over  by  the 
Viceroy,  and  governors  and  lieutenant-governors  in  their 
several  administrations  held  receptions  at  which  repre- 
sentatives from  public  institutions  and  cities  were  enter- 
tained, and  chiefs  offered  addresses  assuring  the  govern- 
ing power  of  their  unwavering  loyalty.  Illuminations 
and  fireworks,  on  a  vast  scale,  delighted  the  multitudes, 
public  feasts  for  the  poor  were  inaugurated,  and  twenty- 
five  thousand  prisoners  were  released  as  a  mark  of  royal 
clemency.  Throughout  the  empire  there  appeared  per- 
fect unanimity  and  undeniable  effort  of  the  people  to 
make  the  occasion  one  of  unusual  splendor.  At  the  close 
of  the  ceremonials  in  India  many  of  the  most  eminent 
princes  and  chiefs  went  to  England  to  be  present  at  the 
celebrations  there,  and  were  received  in  a  manner  that 
accorded  with  their  exalted  rank  and  historical  position. 


638  India  of  the  Present. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  extravagant,  if  loya*,  display, 
the  government  of  India  was  confronted  with  a  grave  fi- 
nancial dilemma.  Notwithstanding  the  expansion  of  for- 
eign trade  and  the  exercise  of  the  strictest  economy  in 
the  ordinary  public  expenditures,  and  the  steady  increase 
of  revenues,  the  annually  compounding  deficit  was  rolling 
up  the  national  debt  to  enormous  proportions.  In  1886, 
though  the  ordinary  revenues  amounted  to  seventy-four 
million  four  hundred  and  seventy-six  thousand  pounds, 
there  was  a  deficit  of  two  million  eight  hundred  and  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty-six  pounds.  The 
British  garrison,  in  1886,  consequent  upon  the  war  with 
Burmah,  had  been  increased  to  five  thousand  one  hundred 
and  ninety-two  officers  and  one  hundred  and  eighty-three 
thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety-four  men,  including 
native  troops,  the  maintenance  of  which  alone  taxed  the 
treasury  to  the  extent  of  twenty  million  ninety-seven  thou- 
sand seven  hundred  and  seventy -nine  pounds.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  outlay  in  connection  with  public  works — 
notably  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  military 
railways — reached  the  sum  of  nearly  twenty-one  million 
pounds  additional,  rendering  it  impossible  to  appropri- 
ate more  than  one  million  five  hundred  thousand  pounds 
for  the  protection  of  the  famine  sufferers  out  of  the  spe- 
cial insurance  fund.  At  the  expiration  of  1887,  six 
million  pounds  had  been  borrowed  from  this  government 


Financial  Embarrassment.  639 

trust  fund  to  meet  the  cost  of  this  imperative  military- 
railway  construction.  The  public  debt,  in  1886, 
amounted  to  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  million  five 
hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  one  hundred  and  one 
pounds,  the  yearly  interest  on  which  was  over  four  mil- 
lion three  hundred  thousand  pounds.  The  fall  in  the 
rate  of  the  exchange  value  of  the  rupee  further  tended 
to  the  existing  financial  embarrassment,  and  necessitated 
either  "  fresh  taxation,  withdrawal  of  railway  appropria- 
tions, or  the  diversion  of  the  available  famine  insurance 
fund,"  to  meet  the  shortage.  The  government  accepted 
the  latter  alternative. 

Up  to  1887,  seven  teen  hundred  million  rupees  had  been 
expended  on  the  construction  of  fourteen  thousand  three 
hundred  and  eighty-three  miles  of  railway.  During  the 
fiscal  year  of  1886-7,  the  net  loss  on  the  construction  and 
operating  of  these  lines  of  road  exceeded  ten  million 
rupees. 

In  1857,  the  public  debt  of  India  was  fifty-nine  million 
nine  hundred  and  forty-three  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  fourteen  pounds,  and  though  at  an  intervening  period 
it  had  been  reduced  by  about  four  million  five  hundred 
thousand  pounds,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1883  eighty- 
nine  million  pounds  sterling  had  been  added  to  the 
national  indebtedness. 

The  following  year  the  strength  of  the  army,  however, 


640  India  of  the  Present. 

was  reduced  to  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-one 
officers  and  sixty-nine  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty 
men. 

This  crisis  served  to  show  the  loyalty  of  the  Indians, 
as  many  of  the  native  princes  offered  free  gifts  of  money 
or  loans  on  liberal  terms  to  the  government. 

The  supreme  power  in  India  had  never  regarded  Thi- 
bet with  anything  but  conciliatory  and  pacific  intentions, 
but  when,  in  1888,  it  was  proposed  to  send  thither  a 
mission,  having  for  its  object  the  establishment  of  benefi- 
cial relations  of  trade  and  commerce,  the  Thibetans  not 
only  refused  to  respond,  but  occupied  Lingtu,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  build  a  fortified  wall  across  the  Jalapla  pass, 
the  most  important  inlet  to  Thibet.  This  action  was 
undeniable  invasion  of  the  rights  of  the  government ;  the 
Jalapla  pass  is  in  Sikkim,  a  dependency  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  warlike  demonstrations  on  that  ground  could 
not  be  tolerated.  Complications  were  multiplied  by  the 
position  assumed  by  the  Raja,  whose  possessions  were 
partly  in  Thibet,  and  partly  in  India,  and  from  whom, 
therefore,  was  due  a  double  allegiance.  The  occupied 
town  was  on  the  Indian  side,  but  the  Raja  ignored  the 
fact  and  encouraged  the  influx  of  Thibetans  into  his 
Indian  territory. 

The  Chinese  emperor  was  appealed  to  as  the  acknowl- 
edged suzerain  of  the  Lamas,  and  his  influence  requested 


War  ivith  the  Raja  of  Sikkim.  641 

to  secure  an  amicable  adjustment.  But  all  endeavor  in 
this  direction  failing  to  have  the  desired  effect,  the  Dalai 
Lama  was  officially  notified  that  while  the  government 
of  India  had  no  hostile  intentions  toward  Thibet  or  de- 
sire to  meddle  with  his  rights  in  Sikkim,  the  position  at 
Lingtu  could  not  be  allowed,  and  a  limit  was  placed  on 
the  time  which  he  was  given  to  withdraw  his  forces.  This 
decision  was  received  with  silence  and  inaction,  and 
the  British  troops  advanced,  took  the  stockade  at  Jeluk 
by  storm,  forced  the  Thibetans  to  retreat  with  apparent 
loss  and  demoralization,  and  advancing  on  Lingtu  found 
it  deserted. 

The  Raja,  however,  had  no  intention  of  giving  up  the 
fight.  His  army  took  up  a  position  at  Jalapla  pass  and 
sent  for  reinforcements.  The  English  entrenched  at 
Gnatong,  became  aware  of  the  determination  of  the  Raja 
to  overcome  Sikkim  in  India,  and  notwithstanding  a 
reduction  in  their  own  numbers,  and  a  knowledge  of 
strong  reinforcements  of  the  enemy's  ranks,  an  attack 
was  made  which  resulted  in  absolute  rout  of  the  recalci- 
trants with  a  loss  of  one  thousand  men.  The  Raja's 
papers  were  captured,  but  he  fled  precipitately,  and  see- 
ing no  further  possibility  of  resistance,  the  English 
retired  within  their  borders. 

During  this  period,  the  turbulent  tribes  of  the  Black 

Mountains  gave  the  government  considerable  trouble. 
H.  I.— 41 


642  India  of  the  Present. 

For  many  years  murders  and  robberies  had  been  of  con- 
stant occurrence,  the  perpetrators  afterwards  retiring 
across  the  borders  to  absolute  security.  In  June,  1888, 
two  British  officers,  in  command  of  a  reconnoitering 
party,  were  set  upon  and  murdered,  and  this  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  A  heavy  fine  was  imposed,  and  on 
failure  to  pay,  the  government  sent  a  force  of  eight 
thousand  men  into  the  fastnesses  occupied  by  the  offend- 
ers. The  unruly  tribes  fought  with  desperation  and 
courage,  but  being  beaten  in  all  parts,  and  awed  by  the 
superior  tactics  of  the  British,  hastened  to  make  submis- 
sion and  paid  the  fines  which  were  imposed,  before  the 
troops  were  withdrawn. 

In  the  beginning  of  1890,  the  government  resolved  to 
completely  subjugate  the  troublesome  tribes  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Burmah  and  India,  and  with  this  object  in  view, 
two  expeditions  advanced  from  opposite  sides  of  the 
mountains.  From  Yokma,  which  is  the  chief  village  of 
the  southern  Baungshe  Chins,  a  large  detachment  of 
troops  was  sent  against  the  Tashons,  or  northern  branch 
of  the  tribe ;  but  they  were  not  easily  induced  to  submit. 
After  they  had  paid  their  fine,  the  English  returned  to 
their  fortified  camps,  whence  small  columns  were  sent 
out  to  punish  the  Seyin  and  Kanhow  Chins  for  cutting 
telegraph  wires.  One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  expedi- 
tion was  to  find  a  route  for  a  railroad  between  Upper 


Demolition  of  the  Temple  of  Benares.  643 

Burmah  and  Lower  Bengal.  The  troops,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  small  garrisons,  were  withdrawn  in  a  short 
time. 

In  addition  to  the  trouble  that  is  certain  to  occur  when 
Hindus  and  Mohammedans  mob  each  other,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  their  religious  festivals,  the  British  authorities 
had  to  contend  with  a  serious  riot  that  they  provoked 
themselves,  by  destroying  a  Hindu  temple  in  the  sacred 
city  of  Benares,  for  the  purpose  of  using  the  site  for  a 
water  works.  Indignation  was  intense,  and  the  whole 
population  gathered  in  the  streets.  Soldiers  were  posted 
throughout  the  district  and  around  the  principal  build- 
ings, yet,  when  the  workmen  began  to  raze  the  shrine, 
the  violence  of  the  mob  could  not  be  restrained  and 
wholesale  arrests  followed.  The  Hindus  and  Buddhists 
throughout  India  shared  in  the  anger  against  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  ancient  temple. 

Lord  Lansdowne's  administration,  which  covered 
the  period  from  1888  to  1893,  was  marked  by 
many  reforms  and  legislative  measures,  which,  although 
seemingly  of  minor  importance  were  of  incalculable  bene- 
fit to  the  population  of  India,  both  native  and  European. 
Special  attention,  with  a  view  to  amendment  and  im- 
provement, was  directed  to  the  ancient  custom  of  child 
marriage,  and  the  ruinous  cost  of  funeral  and  marriage 
rites,  and  many  of  the  princes  and  chiefs  of  the  native 


644  India  of  the  Present 

states  joined  hands  with  the  controlling  power  in  this 
attempt  at  reform. 

In  1891,  the  attention  of  the  government  was  directed 
to  Kelat,  on  the  extreme  southern  frontier  of  India, 
where,  for  years,  the  Khan,  a  brutal  and  pitiless  ruler, 
had  been  guilty  of  the  most  horrible  atrocities  and  wan- 
ton murders,  under  the  guise  of  legal  executions.  For 
some  trivial  cause  and  without  a  shadow  of  justifiable 
excuse,  the  prime  minister  had  lately  suffered  death  at 
the  order  of  the  tyrant,  and  the  government  of  India  in- 
structed Sir  James  Brown,  the  British  agent  at  Kelat, 
to  force  the  abdication  of  the  despot  in  the  interest  of  his 
subjects.  This  move  was  accomplished  and  Mir  Mah- 
mud  Khan  was  placed  in  control  toward  the  last  of  the 
year.  The  deposed  Khan  admitted  that  he  had  put  to 
death  three  thousand  men  and  women  during  the  thirty- 
six  years  of  his  despotic  rule. 

In  June,  1893,  the  Indian  Government,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  English  cabinet,  decided  on  a  suspension  of 
the  free  coinage  of  silver,  with  a  view  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  gold  standard,  and  a  measure  was  also  passed 
finally  fixing  the  value  of  the  rupee  at  one  shilling  and 
four  pence,  which  did  not  prevent  the  marketable  value 
of  the  much  abused  coin  from  subsequently  falling  to 
one  shilling  and  three  pence,  and  even  a  fraction  less. 
The  closing  of  the  mints,  however,  did  not  stop  the  im- 


A  National  Congress.  645 

portation  of  silver  bullion,  and  an  import  tax  on  un- 
coined silver  was  advocated.  According  to  the  latest 
official  returns  the  present  national  debt  of  the  Indian 
Empire  is  over  twenty-one  hundred  million  rupees.  In 
1894,  the  Earl  of  Elgin  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Lord  Lansdowne,  and  under  his  rule  the  country  contin- 
ues peaceful  and  prosperous.  It  has  already  been 
marked  by  the  abolition  of  the  Presidential  Army  sys- 
tem, by  the  imposition  of  import  duties  on  all  articles 
except  cotton  yarns  and  goods,  and  by  the  conversion  of 
the  Indian  rupee  debt  from  four  to  three  and  one-half 
per  cent.  A  convention  with  China  regarding  the  north- 
eastern frontier  of  Burmah  has  also  been  concluded  and 
negotiations  for  the  division  of  British,  Russian  and 
Chinese  spheres  of  influence  on  the  Pamirs  are  now  in 
progress.  The  manners  and  institutions  of  India  of  to- 
day evince,  in  a  marked  degree,  the  elevating  influence 
of  English  example. 

A  national  congress,  composed  of  several  hundred  del- 
egates from  all  parts  of  the  country,  meets  once  a  year  in 
one  of  the  great  cities  to  discuss  important  questions. 
This  congress  was  inaugurated  under  the  indulgent  rule 
of  Lord  Ripon,  for  the  purpose  of  making  known  to  the 
government,  in  an  orderly,  but  forcible,  manner,  the 
wishes  and  views  of  the  native  population  in  political 
affairs,  and  to  secure  a  larger  share  in  the  administrative 


646  India  of  the  Present. 

power  of  their  own  country.  Although  the  government 
has  persistently  striven  to  check  its  onward  movement, 
the  national  congress  has  steadily  gained  strength  and  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  fact  which  the  supreme  power  cannot 
afford  to  ignore. 

Since  the  transfer  in  1858,  of  the  powers  of  the  British 
East  India  Company,  to  the  Crown,  there  has  been  a 
steady  increase  of  territory,  prosperity,  and  commercial 
influence;  and  to-day,  the  Anglo-Indian  empire  has 
"lengthened  its  cords  and  extended  its  stakes,"  beyond 
the  bounds  of  any  former  period  of  its  existence.  The 
more  thorough  knowledge  the  governed  and  governing 
races  now  seek  and  acquire  of  each  other,  is  an  omen  for 
good,  as  is  also  the  higher  education,  and  increased  social 
influence  of  woman.  But  the  most  cheering  symptom  of 
the  future  good  government  of  India,  is  the  increased  dis- 
position of  British  rulers  to  associate  natives  of  character 
and  ability  with  themselves,  in  high  offices  of  administra- 
tion. Parliament,  so  long  ago  as  1 833,  laid  down  the 
principal  that  "  no  native  shall,  by  reason  of  his  religion, 
place  of  birth,  or  color,  be  disabled  from  holding  office." 
The  Queen  of  England  also,  in  1858,  proclaimed  her  will, 
that  "so  far  as  may  be,  our  subjects  of  whatever  race  or 
creed,  be  impartially  admitted  to  offices  in  our  service,  the 
duties  of  which  they  may  be  qualified  by  their  education, 
ability,  and  integrity,  duly  to  discharge."  That  there  are 


Growth  and  Progress.  647 

abuses  and  defects,  things  to  be  deplored,  and  some  hard 
to  be  borne,  cannot  be  denied  ;  but  there  is  growth,  real, 
unquestionable  progress,  despite  these  defects;  and  the 
former  serf  is  gradually  being  developed  into  a  freeman, 
with  such  aspirations,  and  aims,  and  longings  as  past  gen- 
erations never  dreamed  of,  even  in  that  grand  old  empire. 
But  India  is  a  land  of  vicissitudes,  a  land  of  which 
Lord  Lansdowne  said  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  fu- 
ture. "  From  the  poor  ryot,  who  sees  his  scanty  crop 
swept  off  the  face  of  the  earth  in  a  few  hours  by  a  swarm 
of  locusts,  to  the  ^financial  member  of  the  council  who 
sees  his  hopes  of  a  surplus  suddenly  wrecked  by  agencies 
which  he  cannot  control — all  are  liable  to  see  their  cloud- 
built  castles  and  golden  dreams  shattered  and  dissipated 
by  visitations  as  unlocked  for  as  they  are  overwhelming. 
India  never  ceases  to  be  conscious  that  the  gaunt  spec- 
ters of  war,  famine,  and  insolvency,  are  hovering  in  the 
distance,  ready  to  descend  upon  her  at  any  moment." 

NOTE: — The  population  of  British  India,  according  to  the  official 
census  taken  by  Jervois  Baines  in  1891,  was  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
one  million  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  fifty-two,  showing  an  increase  of  over  thirty  million,  within  a 
decade.  The  population  of  the  Feudatory  States  was  sixty-six  mil- 
lion fifty  thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-nine.  The  territorial 
area  of  continental  India  now  comprises  one  million  five  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  square  miles,  about  sixty- 
two  per  cent,  of  which  constitutes  the  British  possessions.  The  pov- 
erty of  the  people  which  the  growth  of  population— 11  per  cent. 
in  the  last  ten  years — tends  perhaps  to  enhance,  is,  according  to 
Whitaker,  the  most  permanent  difficulty  which  the  government  is 
called  upon  to  meet. 


EXPLANATION  OF  INDIAN  TERMS. 

Abad.  An  abiding  place.  It  is  used  in  composition  as  the 
terminal  appellation  of  many  cities  :  Allahabad,  the  abode 
of  God;  Ahmedabad,  the  city  of  Ahmed.  It  also  means 
fertile. 

Anna.  Copper  money,  representing  the  eighth  part  of  an  Eng 
lish  shilling,  or  of  a  half-rupee. 

Ayah.     Nurse,  lady's  maid,  female  servant. 

Bagh.    A  garden. 

Bahadour.    Brave,  a  title  of  nobility 

Bang.     A  compound  of  opium  and  hemp-seed. 

Baoli.     A  well,  or  cistern  of  cut  stone. 

Begum.     A  Mahoraedan  princess. 

Biggaree.     Porter  or  guide. 

Bheestee     Water-carrier. 

Biri.    A  kind  of  cigarette. 

Brahmins.     Hindoos  of  the  priestly  caste. 

Bulbul.     The  Indian  nightingale. 

Bund.     A  dyke  or  dam. 

Bungalow.     European  residence. 

Bungalow  (Travellers')  Establishments  kept  up  by  the  gov- 
ernment for  the  accommodation  of  travellers  on  postal 
routes. 

Bungheeas.    Sweepers,  the  lowest  caste. 

Burra.  Great;  a  term  usually  applied  to  the  principal  Eng- 
lish resident  at  a  place. 

Chditya.  A  sacred  place,  containing  objects  dedicated  to  the 
divinity  —  Buddhist. 

Chaoree.  The  adit  to  a  temple,  also  a  fan  of  yak  tails  used  in 
ceremonies. 

648 


Explanation  of  Terms.  649 

Chatri.     Pavilion  on  four  columns. 

Cheetah.  An  animal  trained  for  deer-hunting.  It  has  semi- 
retraclile  claws,  and  is  the  connecting  link  between  dog 
and  cat. 

Chiboutra.     Kiosk,  frequently  the  principal  place  in  a  square. 
Ckobdar.     Bearer  of  stick  of  office,  ceremonial  messenger. 
Choor.     Robber. 

Chopaya.     Carriage  on  four  or  six  wheels 
Chota.     Small. 

Choutri.     Pavilion  raised  on  numerous  columns. 
Chowkeydar.     Night-watchman. 
Crore.     One  hundred  lakhs  of  rupees.     A  lakh  is  equal  to  ten 

thousand  pounds. 

Daghobn.    Buddhist  altar;  also  a  depostory  for  relics. 
Dak.     The  post;  administration  of  relays. 
Deva.    God;  the  term  Mahadeva,  or  Great  God,  is    specially 

applied  to  Siva. 

De-wan.     Principal  minister  of  State. 
Dhobee.     Washerman. 

Dhotee.     Hindoo  clothing  for  the  lower  limbs. 
Durbar.     A  court  reception,  in  full  dress. 
Durwaza.    A  door. 

Fakeer.     Religious  mendicant,  usually  Mohammedan. 
Gadi.     Throne.     Raised  seat  reserved  for  princes. 
Gaum.    A  village, 

Ghari.    A  carriage.      Dak-yhari,  post-chaise;   Ag-yhari,  loco- 
motive. 

Ghir,  Ghiri,  Ghur.     A  mountain  or  fortress. 
Ghaut.     A  quay,  a  flight  of  steps  going  down  to  water,  also  a 

mountain  pass.     English,  Gate. 
Gossains.     Religious  beggars. 
Ghur.     House  or  residence. 
Gurrha.     Water-vessel  of  earthenware. 
Hamul.     Domestic  servant,  bearer. 
Howdah.    A  seat  used  for  riding  elephants. 
Hulkara.     A  messenger,  generally  in  livery. 


650  Explanation  of  Terms. 

Jains.     A  sect  of  Hindoos. 

Jemadar.    Native  military  officer,  or  chief  of  servants. 

Jhageer.     Hereditary  estate. 

Jheel.    A  swamp. 

Jungle.     Uncultivated  ground,  forest. 

Khansamah.     Major-domo,  purveyor. 

Kshtruyas.    Hindoos  of  the  warrior  caste. 

Kutcherry.    Office. 

Lakh.    Equal  to  ten  thousand  pounds. 

Langouti.     Loin-cloth. 

Lascar.     Servant  in  charge  of  tents. 

Lai.     Monolithic  column. 

Lingam.    Mystic  emblem  of  Siva. 

Maha,    Used  in  composition,  signifying  "  great." 

Mahal.    A  palace. 

Mahout.    Elephant  driver. 

Mahunt.     Chief  priest. 

Mohr.     Gold  coin,  worth  about  thirty-five  English  shillings,  but 

rarely  in  circulation. 
Moollah.    Mohammedan  priest. 
Moonshee.     Interpreter,  teacher  of  languages. 
Mukkam.     Halting-place. 
Mundil.     Turban. 
Mundir.    Temple. 
Musjld.    Mosque. 
Musnud.    Throne. 

Nautch.     A  dance  performed  by  girls. 
Nautchni.    Female  dancer. 
Nawab.    Mohammedan  chieftian. 
Nuddee.     A  river. 
Nullah.    A  small  stream,  often  dry  in  summer,  and  becoming 

a  torrent  in  the  rains. 
Nuzzur.     A  tribute  or  offering. 
Palki.     Palanquin. 
Peer.    Mohammedan  saint. 
PeMwan.     Athlete,  wrestler. 


Explanation  of  Terms.  651 

Pe'isa.     Copper  money ;  four  pice  make  one  anna. 

Peshwah.     Head  of  the  Mahratta  dynasty. 

Pie.    The  smallest  copper  coin. 

Poor.  Used  in  combination  with  other  words  as  a  terminal, 
signifying  town:  Oodeypoor,  Jeypoor,  and  many  hun- 
dreds of  others. 

Pundit.     A  learned  man. 

Purwana.     Firman,  imperative  order. 

Rdis.    Prince. 

Raj.     Kingdom,  territory.     Rajah.     King  or  sovereign. 

Rana.  The  same;  but  this  title  is  not  equivalent  to  that  of 
rajah  in  all  cases. 

Ranee.     Queen. 

Rao.     Usually  a  title  pertaining  to  royalty. 

Rupee.  The  Government  coinage,  value  about  two  shillings; 
there  are  however,  rupees  from  native  mints  also  of  va- 
rious values. 

Rutt.  A  covered  carriage,  drawn  by  a  pair  of  bullocks,  com- 
monly used  by  women. 

Sahib.    Sir,  gentleman. 

Sdivas.    Worshippers  of  Siva, 

Salaam.    Salutation,  ceremonial  bow. 

Sani.    Riding  dromedary. 

Sapwalla.    Snake-charmer. 

Sarree.  Women's  garment  universally  worn  in  civilized  parts 
of  India. 

Shiyram.     An  oblong  close  carriage  to  carry  four  persons. 

Sing.  Lion  —  a  title  frequently  added  to  the  names  of  Raj- 
poots and  Sikhs. 

Sirdar.     Noble. 

Sirkar.    The  state.     Sirkaree.     Belonging  to  the  state. 

Soubah.    Governor  of  a  province. 

Soudras.     Hindoos  of  the  artisan  class,  agriculturists. 

Sowar.     Horseman,  usually  a  soldier. 

Sowarree.     A  procession,  chiefly  mounte 

Syud.    Mohammedan,  descended  from  the  prophets. 


652  Explanation  of  Terms. 

Tal,  taloa.    Lake. 

Thakoor.    Rajpoot  chief. 

Thannadar.    Chief  of  a  fortified  place. 

Tirthankar.     Jain  philosopher. 

Tope.     Sacred  building,  also  a  piece  of  ordnance 

Vihara.     Buddhist  religious  establishment. 

Zemindar.     Hereditary  occupier  of  the  soil. 

Zenana.    Apartments  of  ladies  of  raiik. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Adinath,  temple  of 254 

Afganistan     218 

Afganistan  evacuated 587 

Afganistan  in  1878  and  1879 622 

Afgans,  defeated 477 

Afghans  invade  the  Pubjaub 557 

Afghans,  war  with 450 

Agra 460 

Ahmedabad 487 

Alimednegar 451 

Ajmere 86 

Allahabad 32 

Ala-u-din    366 

Albuquerque 59,  394 

Alexander  in  I  ndia 334 

Altamsh 368 

Alum,  Shah 528 

Animals,  hospitals  for 180 

Arab  power  lost 348 

Aracan 207 

Aravalis  range,  The  85 

Arcot  and  its  Nawabs 142 

653 


PAGE. 

j  Arcot  captured  by  Hyder  Ali 538 

Assam 118,208 

j  Assaye,  battle  of 565 

j  Attar  and  Pan 255 

Aurungzebe 144,  477,  500 

Baber,  the  Tiger 382,  431 

Bangalore 101,  138 

i  Banian,  The 275 

!  Behram  Khan   440 

i  Bengal 33,  118 

I  Bentich,  Lord  William 578 

j  Bhadrinath 84 

Bheels,  The    424 

Birsing  Deo     228 

Black  Hole,  The 133,518 

Blackmail 93 

Bombay  36,  161 

Bombay  Islands 53 

Botanic  garden   on   the    Mussoori 

mountains 66 

Bourdillas 223 


654 


General  Index. 


PAGE. 

Brahmins 285 

Brahmaputra 209 

Bundelcund   219 

Bungalows 21 

Buniahs 297 

Burmah,  missions  in   319 

Burmese  war    571 


Cabul 218 

Cabul,  mission  to 583 

Cabul  stormed 584 

Calcutta    127 

Callian 195 

Cambay  stones.   98 

Cananore 145 

Candahar 218 

Canouj 339 

Carnatic,  The 138 

Cashew  nut,  The 274 

Cashmere 213 

Caste 598 

Caste  system,  The 282 

Catamarans 41 

Cavery,  The 50 

Cawnpore,  the  mutiny  at 615 

Ceylon 63 

Chenaub,  The 48 

Chittagong  . . .- 205 

Chittore 442 

Chumbul,  The 48 

Climate  of  Dharjeling 76 

Clive,  Lord    145,  516,  530 

Cochin 142 

Columbus 389 

Commercial  troubles 577 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre 538 

Cornwalhs,  Lord 140 

Cotton  famine 192 


Dalhousie,  Lord,  his  brilliant  ad- 
ministration   593 


PAGE. 
"  Dandy,' '  The 77 

Daoulatabad  . .   483 

Deccan,  The 35,98 

Deccan,  early  inhabitants  of 341 

Delhi,  scenes  at 609 

Dewani  Am,  the,  at  Agra    463 

Dharjeling   70 

Dharmasoka 336 

Dhobarri  Pass,  the  defence  of 418 

Dholepore  233 

Diamond  mines 436 

Dutch  in  India 398 

Dutch  jealous  of  England   522 

Duttiah 226 

Dying,  The 298 

East  India  Company,  The    115,  528,  555 

Elephanta 13 

Elphinstone,  Lord    569 

English  ascendency  established  .  . .  124 

English  in  India  495 

English  power  in  India 516 

Esplanade,  the,  at  Bombay 175 

Everest,  Mount 65 


Fakirs   ,78 

Farokhsad   362 

Ferdousi •  359 

Frere,  Sir  Bartle 202 

Ganesha 103 

Ganges,  The 19,  98 

Gheias-u-din 367,  373 

Ghuzni,  fall  of 464 

Golconda 486 

Gunga,  the  goddess 63 

Guzerat    340 

Gwalior 237 


Hastings,  Warren    534 

Havelock 616 


General  Index. 


655 


PAGE. 

Heber,  Bishop 412 

Herdeo  Singh    220 

Himalayas,  The    19 

Holkar 566 

Hooghly,  The 60,  124 

Horse-market  at  Bombay 176 

Huang  Tcheng 220 

Humayum 435,439 

Hyderabad 486 

Hyder  Ali 138,  531,  539 

Ibrahim    362 

I  ndus,  The    46 

Inquisition,  the,  at  Goa 302 

Irrigation 272 

Jains 404 

Jampna,  The 82 

Janghis  Khan   342 

Jehan,  Shah 473 

Jeejeebhoy,  Sir  Jamsetjc  191 

Jahanghir  418 

Jeypore   420 

Jones,   Sir  William 321 

Jumna.  The 47 

Kaytee-house    in 

Khandalla 21 

Khayats  or  Scribes 297 

Kherut  Khoumb 446 

Khiliji,  house  of 370 

Kyber  Pass 588,  627 

Krishna,  image  of 464 

Kschatrya  caste 142,  223,  285,  399 

Kutb-u-din  368 

Lashkar 250 

Lingam,  The  226 

Lucknow,  the,  mutiny  at   618 

Madras 40,  134,  150,  157 

Maha  Barat,  The  330 


PAGE. 

Mahmoud,  of  Ghuzni 342,  358 

Mahrattas,  The 342,  491 

Mahrattas  defeated  by  Aurungzebe  479 

Mahrattas,  incursions  of 536 

Makwah,  the  tree 279 

Malabar  hill 184 

Malabar  territory  29 

Matheran,  The 22 

Maurya  dynasty,  The 336 

M  issions 300 

Mohammed  Shah  ...    506 

Monsoons 262 

Moors,  the,  in  India 342 

Mountains 74 

Munro,  Sir  Thomas 152 

Mysore 101,  138 

Napoleon   568 

Neilgherry  mountains 36,  105 

Nena  Sahib 224 

Nerbudcla,  The 47 

Nour  Mahal   458 

Oudeypore 405 

Oudh 32 

Outlaws 427 

Palmer  and  Company,  failure  of  ..  577 

Paniput,  battle  of     247 

Parsee  Bazaar  in  Bombay 172 

Parsees 178 


Patna,  fall  of 527 

Peace 547 

Plassy,  battle  of 519 

Pondicherry 539 

Pondicherry  capitulates 521 

Poonah   194 

Portuguese,  the,  in  India  392 

Potato,  The 274 

Presidencies,  the  three 1 18 

Provinces   1 16 

Pudmanee    446 


656 


General  Index. 


PAGE. 

Punjaub.  The 27 

Punjaub,  victories  in 589 

Purvus    297 


Races  of  India 400 

Railways 120,  166 

Rain 265 

Rajputs,  The   413 

Rajputana 210 

Rama,  legend  of 186 

Ramayana,  The 325 

Rao,  Sir  Dinkur 242 

Raos,  the,  of  Meywar 256 

Rebellion,  the  Sepoy   601 

Rice 272 

Rohillas,  rise  of  510 

Rousselet 234 

Sacrifices,  human  125 

Salsette  55 

Samanis,  The 349 

Sangam 198 

Sangor,  on  the  Hooghly 60 

Sanitarium 69 

Sanitarium,  A 107 

Schools 160,  168 

Schwartx 310 

Scinde 28,  240,  340 

Scindia  conquered 544 

Scindias  The 244,  249 

Sepoys 565,  593 

Sepoys,  an  insurrection  of 149 

Seasons 265 

Seikhs,  the  race  of 28 

Selim,  Jehanghir 454 

Seringapatam 14° 

Seringapatam  besieged .'.  554 

Sevaji  Bhousa    493 

Shah  Alum 528 


PAGE. 

Shah  Jehan 473 

Shawls 216 

Simla  ..  .81 


Sirmour  mountains,  The   83 

Sik-kim  hills  69 

Sonaghur 230 

Sudras 285 

Sunderbunds,  The 125 

Surat 193 


Taj,  The 46? 

Tanjore 53» 

Teraghur 86 

Thakours,  The 90 

Thomas,  St.,  of  India 152,  300 

Tippoo  Sahib 138,  532,  543,  553 

Toghlak  dynasty  373 

Ton-jon,  The ". 77 

Trade  with  Europe 386 

Travancore,  the  Rajah  of 143 


Vaishyas  285 

Vansittart 523 

Vasco  de  Gama 389 

Vegetables  in  India   274 

Vellore : 146 


Vikramaditya 89 

Vindhyas,  The 19,  94,  425 

Vishnu,  temple  of 84 

Vfzianagram    M4 

Wales,  Prince  of 153,  234,  24' 

Walkeshwar,  the  god  of  the  sands. .    187 

Xavier,  St.  Francis 305,  396 

Yakoob  Khan  626 

Zayats  97 


Supplementary  Index. 


657 


SUPPLEMENTARY     INDEX. 


Afghanistan,  war  with 628,  633 

Army,   strength  of 638,  640 

Benares,  destruction  of  Temple .  643 

Bosh  way 636 

Burmah,  war  with 634 

conquest  of 635 

Coinage 644 

Congress 645 

Dacoits,   fight   with 636,637 

Debt,  national 638,  639 

Dufferin,  Marquis  of 633 

Education,  commissioners  of. .  . .  632 
Elgin,  Earl  of 645 

Finances   638 

India,  of  to-day 646,  647 

Jalapla  Pass,  battle  of 640 


Jubilee,  year  of 637 

Kelat,  deposition  of  Khan  of 644 

Lansdowne,  Marquis  of 643 

Lytton,  Lord 628 

Mandalay,  capture  of 634 

Municipal  Bill,  changes  in 632 

Mysore,    native    administration 
restored 631 

Population 647 

Ripon,  Lord 628,  631 

Roberts,  General  Sir  Fred 637 

Salt,  reduction  of  duties  on....  632 
Shahalum,  battle  of.    631 

Tashons,  war  with 642 

Theebaw,  King 634 

Thibet,  war  with 640 


A    000  191  958 


